Biomechanics of Work

-Shalin Subba Limbu

-Jenish Jung Karki

Mary is the CEO of a package-shipping company. She and her management
team recently decided to increase the package weight limit from 80 pounds
per package to 145 pounds, hoping to increase productivity and
competitiveness. This decision immediately stirred an up-roar among the
workers, and the union is planning to organize a strike. The union believes that
the new package weight limit puts workers at a great risk of physical injury.
“Actually, the current weight limit of 80 pounds is already too high!” workers
complain. Mary does not wish to put the workers in a dangerous work
environment. She does not want to see a strike in her company. She is also
afraid of any lawsuits against the company if a worker gets injured in the
workplace. But at the same time, Mary wants to see the company survive and
succeed in a competitive market, and to do so, she has to constantly improve
the productivity. She wonders, “Is the limit of145 pounds too high? Is it true
that 80 pounds is already too heavy? Is there any scientific answer to these
questions?”
 Biomechanics

• Biomechanics is only a branch of the broader field of ergonomics.

• Biomechanics uses laws of physics and engineering concepts to describe
motion undergone by the various body segments and the forces acting on
these body parts during normal daily activities.

• In simpler words, it is a science that studies the effects of internal and external
forces on the human body in movement and in rest
 Musculoskeletal
System

It is composed of the bones, muscles, and

connective tissues, which include ligaments,
tendons, fascia, and cartilage.

Functions: to support and protect the body

and body parts, to maintain posture and
produce body movement, and to generate
heat and maintain body temperature.
 Bones and Connective Tissues

• There are 206 bones in a human body, and they form the rigid skeletal structure,
which plays the major supportive and protective roles in the body.

• Some bones protect internal organs, such as the skull, which covers and protects
the brain, and the rib cage, which shields the lungs and heart from the outside.

• Some bones, such as the long bones of the upper and lower extremities, work
with the attached muscles to support body movement and activities.
• Bones change their structure, size, and shape over time as a result of the
mechanical loads placed on them.
• Bones can fracture when they are exposed to excess or repetitive loading in
the form of bending forces, torsional forces, or combined forces.
• The amount of load, the number of repetitions, and the frequency of
loading are the three most important factors that can cause bone fracture.
• Bone is capable of repairing small fractures if adequate recovery time is
given.
• Connective tissues may also be damaged after excessive or repeated use.
For example, heavy loads may increase tension in tendons and cause tendon
pain. Excessive use of tendons may also cause inflammation of tendons.
 Biomechanical Models

• Mathematical models of the mechanical properties of the human body.

• The musculoskeletal system is analyzed as a system of mechanical links, and the
bones and muscles act as a series of levers.

• This models allow one to predict the stress levels on specific musculoskeletal
components quantitatively with established methods of physics and mechanical

engineering and thus can serve as an analytical tool to help job designers identify

and avoid hazardous job situations.

Biomechanical Model
of Knee
 Single-Segment Planar Static Model

• This model analyzes an isolated body segment with the laws of

mechanics to identify the physical stress on the joints and muscles.
Suppose a person is holding a load of 20-kg mass
with both hands in front of his body and his forearms
are horizontal. Calculate Relbow and Melbow.
Solution
 Lower Back Problems
• According to a report of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH, 1981), about half a million workers in the United States suffer some kind of
overexertion injury each year.
• The two most prevalent musculoskeletal problems are low back pain and upper-
extremity (fingers, hands, wrists, arms, and shoulders) cumulative trauma disorders.
• About 60 percent of the overexertion injuries reported each year involve lifting and
back pain.
• The National Council on Compensation Insurance estimates that low-back-pain-
related worker compensation payments and indirect costs total about $27 billion to
$56 billion in the United States (Pope et al., 1991).
• In industries where the work requires repetitive hand and arm exertions, more than
one in 10 workers annually reported upper-extremity cumulative trauma disorders
(UECTDs).
Biomechanics of Lifting
.
 NOISH Lifting Guide

• Low back pain and back injuries account for 38.5% of all work-related
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) according to a 2016 report from the Bureau
of Labour Statistics.
• MSDs affect the muscles, nerves, blood vessels, ligaments, and tendons, and if
the roots of the problem are not addressed, MSDs continue to progress over
time, leading to direct and indirect costs for the company.
• NIOSH developed the Lifting Equation to help predict the risk of lifting injuries.
• The Lifting Equation defines a Recommended Weight Limit (RWL), a
recommendation of the heaviest load a healthy worker could lift without
increasing the risk of developing low back pain
Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) = LC x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

• Horizontal distance (distance of hands on the load from midpoint between ankles, H)
• Starting height of the hands from the ground (vertical location, V)
• Vertical travel distance of the lift (D)
• Time between lifts or frequency of lifting (F)
• Angle of the load in relation to the body (A)
• Quality of the grasp or handhold based on the type of handles available (coupling, C)
…where load constant (LC, weight of the object lifted) and other factors in the equation are as follows:
• HM, the Horizontal Multiplier factor
• VM, the Vertical Multiplier factor
• DM, the Distance Multiplier factor
• FM, the Frequency Multiplier factor
• AM, the Asymmetric Multiplier factor
• CM, the Coupling Multiplier factor
Upper Extremity Cumulative Trauma Disorder
• Industries where repetitive hand and arm exertions are prevalent, cumulative
trauma disorders (CTDs) of the upper extremities are common.
• They are regional musculoskeletal impairments that are associated with
repetitive mechanical trauma occurring in the workplace.
• CTDs of the upper extremities encompass a multitude of physical symptoms,
pathology, and disability related to muscle tissue, ligaments, tendons, tendon
sheaths, joints, and nerves.
• Since the early 1980s, there has been a sharp rise in reported CTD cases.
Armstrong and Silverstein (1987) found that in workplaces involving frequent
hand and arm exertions, more than 1 in 10 workers annually reported CTDs.
 Common Forms of CTD

CTDs are disorders of the soft tissues in the upper extremities, including the
fingers, the hand and wrist, the upper and lower arms, the elbow, and the
shoulder.
• Tendon-Related CTD: When an increased blood supply is needed in
repetitive work, the muscles may “steal” blood from tendons, particularly in
static work in which there is an increased tension in tendons. These
conditions may cause tendon pain. Excessive and repetitive use of tendons
can cause inflammation of tendons, which is a common CTD known as
tendonitis. The sheaths surrounding tendons provide the necessary nutrition
and lubrication to the tendons. When the sheaths also show inflammation
and secret excess synovial fluid, the condition is called tenosynovitis.
• Neuritis: Repeated use of the upper extremities in awkward posture can stretch
the nerves or rub the nerves against bones and cause nerve damage, leading to
neuritis. This ailment is accompanied by tingling and numbness in the affected
areas of the body.
• Ischemia: The sensations of tingling and numbness can also occur when there is a
localized tissue anemia due to an obstruction of blood flow. Repeated exposures
of the palm to pressure forces from the handle of a hand tool, for example, can
cause obstructions of blood flow to fingers, leading to ischemia at the fingers.
• Bursitis: Inflammation of a bursa, which is a sac containing synovia or viscous
fluid. Bursae can be found near the joints, and they protect tendons from rubbing
against bones and help reduce friction between tissues. Bursitis is usually
accompanied by a dull pain in the affected part of the body.
• CTDs of the Fingers: Repeated and prolonged use of vibrating hand tools
may cause numbness, tingling, or pain when the hands are exposed to cold,
which is an ailment known as vibration-induced white fingers or Raynaud’s
phenomenon. Excessive use of digit fingers against resistance or sharp
edges and repeated use of index finger with pistol type hand tools may
cause a condition called trigger finger in which the affected finger cannot
straighten itself once flexed. Forceful extensions of the thumb may cause
impaired thumb movement, a condition called gamekeeper’s thumb.
• CTDs of the Hand and Wrist: Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) affects wrist and
hand.
• CTDs at the Elbow: Repeated forceful wrist activities such as frequent use of a
hammer can cause overexertion of the extensor muscles on the outside of the
elbow, which leads to tendon irritation, an ailment known as tennis elbow or
lateral epicondylitis. When the flexor muscles and their tendons on the inside of
the elbow are affected, the ailment is called golfer’s elbow or medial
epicondylitis. Another well-known CTD at the elbow is called telephone
operator’s elbow, which is often found in workplaces where workers rest their
elbows on a sharp edge of a desk or a container. The constant pressure from the
sharp edge may irritate the nerve and cause tingling and numbness in the vicinity
of the little finger.
• CTDs at the Shoulder: Working with fast or repetitive arm movements or with
static elevated arms may cause shoulder pain and injuries, particularly when the
hands are raised above the shoulder height. Such activities may cause CTDs at
the shoulder, such as tenosynovitis and bursitis, often known as impingement
syndrome, rotator cuff irritation, swimmer’s shoulder, or pitcher’s arm.
 Causes of CTD
• Rapid, repetitive movements of hand or fingers can irritate the tendons and cause
the sheaths surrounding tendons to produce excess synovial fluid, leading to
tenosynovitis and tendonitis.
• forceful exertions are involved because of the increased tensions in muscles and
tendons.
• Unnatural joint postures such as bent wrists, elevated elbows, or raised shoulders
preload and stretch the soft tissues and may press the tendons against the bones
and increase their frictions with each other.
• Using a short tool handle against the base of the palm, grasping sharp objects in the
hand, or resting the arm on a sharp edge can cause obstructions of blood flow and
possibly irritate the nerves, which may also occur in vibrational or cold
environments.
 Non-Occupational Factors
• Health condition, wrist size, pregnancy, use of oral contraceptives, sex, age, and
psychosocial factors, have also been identified as potential causes for CTDs.
• People with pre existing health conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and
peripheral circulatory impairments are particularly vulnerable to the
development of CTDs, which also appear to be more common among individuals
with a small hand or wrist.
• Pregnancy, menopause, and use of oral contraceptives are also linked to the
development of CTDs, which partially explains why women may be more prone
to them.
• Elderly people have a greater risk of developing CTDs, particularly those with
poor general health conditions.
• Psychosocial factors such as job satisfaction, self-esteem, and tolerance of
discomfort are important factors in determining a person’s vulnerability to
developing CTDs.
 Prevention of CTD

Comprehensive approach to the prevention of CTDs in workplaces through

administrative and engineering methods.
• Administrative methods include worker education and training and the provision
of appropriate work-rest schedules.
• Engineering methods refer to the use of engineering techniques to redesign the
workplace and tools.
• Human factors professionals and ergonomists need to work with management
and related worker organizations to establish continuing education programs to
increase the workers’ knowledge of the risks, causes, and preventive methods of
CTDs.
• Attention to worker health conditions, establishment of regular exercise
programs and facilities, and creation of a desirable social environment.
• Job schedules should be carefully evaluated and designed to reduce time and
pace pressure and provide flexibility.
• Warm-up exercises before the start of the work and the adoption of adequate
work-rest cycles are effective ways of conditioning and relaxing the body in a
work environment.
• Task rotation can increase task variety and help minimize the repetitive
components of a job..
• Anthropometric design of workplaces is an important method for preventing
work-related CTDs.
• Use of automated equipments, provision of supporting devices, and careful
design of work tools can also help reduce CTD risks. For example, highly
repetitive tasks or tasks requiring forceful exertions should be done by
automated equipment if possible.
• Arm rests to support the weight of the arms can help reduce the load on the
elbow and shoulder.
• Design of a work tool should be based on a careful analysis of the joint
postures required in using the tool, and every effort should be made to avoid
unnatural postures such as bent, twisted, or overextended joint positions.
• For computer keyboard users, wrist rests with a proper surface contour and
soft cloth material can help the wrists maintain a more natural posture and
minimize the wrist contact with a potentially cold and sharp table edge.
 Hand Tool Design

• Hand tools can be seen everywhere.

• Screwdrivers, handsaws, hammers, pliers, scissors, forks, knives, and chopsticks.
• Hand tools extend the capabilities of the human hands to accomplish tasks that
are otherwise impossible or dangerous.
• Poorly designed hand tools not only jeopardize task performance and
productivity but are a major cause of CTDs.
Guidelines for the design of hand tools to reduce the risk of
developing CTDs;
• Do not bend the wrist: The hand, wrist, and fore-arm should remain in alignment when
using a hand tool.
• Shape tool handles to assist grip: Tool handles should be padded, be sufficiently long, and
have a small curvature to help distribute the forces on either side of the palm and the
fingers.
• Provide adequate grip: For round tool handles such as those for screwdrivers, the grip span
is de-fined as the diameter of the handles. Maximum grip strength was observed when the
grip span was about 4 cm. In general, the handle diameter should not be greater than 4 to 5
cm and should allow slight overlap of the thumb and fingers of the user.
• Provide finger and gloves clearances: Ensure a full grip of an object and to minimize the
risk of squeezing and crushing the fingers. Sufficient clearance for gloves should be
provided if the workers are expected to wear them, such as in cold workplaces or when
handling hazardous materials. Because gloves reduce both the sensory and the motor
capabilities of the hands, extra caution must be exercised in tool and job design to avoid
tool slippage or accidental activation of neighbouring devices.
 Bibliography

• Christopher D. Wickens, John Lee, Yili D. Liu, and Sallie Gordon-

Becker. 2003. Introduction to Human Factors Engineering (2nd
Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., USA.