Electricity and Magnetism

Lecture 4: Gauss’s Law

 Lecture Topics:
• Electric Flux
• Gauss’s Law
• Examples of using Gauss’s Law
• Properties of Conductors
 Concept of Flux

 Direction of field is radial: outward for +|Q| but

inward for -|Q|
 Magnitude of electric field is constant on any spherical
shell
 The no. of field lines passing through surface A is the
same as the no. passing through surface B B
 Flux through any shell enclosing Q is the same:
EAAA = EBAB
 Q A
r
q0

Electric flux is a measure

of how much the electric
field vectors penetrate
through a given surface
 Concept of flux (contd)
The flux is the product of the electric field E and
the surface area A, i.e. EA; the surface A can be
either perpendicular to the electric field or at an
angle θ to the electric field direction.
When surface area A is perpendicular to the
electric field, the flux
E  EA
When the area is at an angle to the electric field,
the
E  EA cos  Unit: N.m/C
 Concept of flux (contd)
θ is the angle between the normal vector to the
surface area A and the electric field; a normal
vector is a vector that is perpendicular to the
surface
 When θ = 0ͦ, it means the surface area A is
perpendicular to the electric field direction, that
is, the normal vector to the surface points in the
same direction as the direction of the electric
field (normal vector is parallel to E); flux is
maximum
 When θ=90ͦ, the electric field is parallel to the
Electric Flux

E :
Field lines of a
uniform electric
field penetrating
a plane of area A
perpendicular to
the field. The
electric flux
through this area
is  E = EA.
 Field lines for a uniform
electric field through an
area A that is at an angle
of θ to the field. Because
the number of field lines
going through the
shaded area A’ is the
same as the number
The quantity Acosθ is going through A, we
conclude that the flux
the projection of the
through A’ is equal to
area A onto a plane the flux through A and
perpendicular to the is given by
electric field
E  EA cos 
 Gauss’s Law

It relates the flux through a

closed surface to the charge
within that surface.
Flux from a point charge through a sphere
The electric field around a
point charge; note that the
electric field is perpendicular to
the spherical surface at all points 1 Q
| E |
on the surface. 4  0 | r1 | 2
Thus the
flux on a E Area
sphere is 1 Q 2
r1   4  | r1 |
E× 4  0 | r1 | 2
Area
Cancelling, Q
we get: 
0
Now we change the
radius of the sphere
1 Q
| E |
4  0 | r 2 | 2
r2 1 Q 2
2  2
 4  | r 2 |
4  0 | r 2 |

Q Q
2   2  1 
0 0

The flux is the same

as before
The flux through any arbitrary surface enclosing
the charge is the same as for the spherical surfaces.
In fact, the number of field lines N  N
passing through any surface
Q
surrounding this charge is the  S   2  1 
0
same.
Therefore, the
flux through
1 each
2 surface is the
same.
s
Principle of superposition:
What is the flux from the two charges below?
Since the flux is related to the Q1 Q 2
number of field lines passing S  
0 0
through a surface, the total
flux is the total from each
charge.
In general,
Q1 Qi For
S   any
s
 0 surface
Q2
Gauss’s Law
 Statement of Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law states that the electric flux  E
though any closed surface is equal to the
net charge, Q , inside
inside the surface,
divided by  0 .
Qinside
E 
0
The law is useful in calculating the electric field of
a system of charges or a continuous distribution of
charge. In practice, it is useful in limited cases
where there is a high degree of symmetry such as
spheres, cylinders or planes.
 Gaussian Surface
With the symmetry displayed by the special shapes
such as the spheres, cylinders or planes, the
charges can be surrounded by an imaginary
surface, called the Gaussian surface. If the
imaginary surface is chosen so that the electric
field is constant everywhere on it, the electric field
can be computed using the equation

Qinside
EA   E 
0
Gauss’s law can also be used to find the average electric
field on any surface.
Quiz
What is the flux passing
through each of these
surfaces?
1
-Q/0 0 +Q/0 +2Q/0

1

2 2

Q1 3

3
It should be noted that electric flux
through a closed surface is zero if there
are no sources of electric field, whether
positive or negative charges, inside the
enclosed volume.
Quiz: Find the
electric flux
through the
surface shown.
a); -(3C)/εo,
b): (3C)/εo
c): 0
d): -(6C)/εo
Examples of using Gauss’s Law
 Using the Symmetry

Example of using Gauss’s Law - 1

Consider a spherical surface
centred on charge Q;
By symmetry, E is 
to the surface
q
Q Q Q
 | E | A  | E | 4r 2  
0 0 0
r2
Q

1 Q 1 Q 1 qQ
| E |  F=qE F
4r 2  0
4r 2  0 4 0 r 2
 Example of using Gauss’s Law - 2
What is the field around a charged
spherical shell? Again consider spherical
surface centred on a
charged shell;
Q Q
Outside  out 
0
1 Q
| E |
4 0 r 2
 in
 out Inside
charge enclosed by
surface = 0
 in  0 E0
 Properties of Conductors

 A good electric conductor like copper,

although electrically neutral, contains
charges (electrons) that are not bound
to any atom and are free to move about
within the material.

 When no net motion of charge occurs

within a conductor, the conductor is said
to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
 Properties of Conductors (contd)
For a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium, the following properties hold:
1. The electric field E is zero within the conductor
2. Any net charge, Q, is distributed on the surface
(surface charge density =Q/A)
3. E immediately outside is  to surface
4. On an irregularly shaped conductor,  is greatest
where the radius of curvature is smaller; charge
accumulates at sharp points where the radius of
curvature is smallest. 
2 1 1  2
 1. E is zero within conductor
If there is a field in the conductor, then
the free electrons would feel a force
and be accelerated. They would then
move and since there are charges
moving, the conductor would not be in
electrostatic equilibrium.
Thus E = 0 for condition of electrostatic
equilibrium.
2. Any net charge, Q, is distributed on the surface
Consider surface S below surface of conductor.
Since we are in a conductor in
equilibrium, rule 1 says E=0, thus
=0;
S
Gauss’s Law   EA   q /  0

thus  qi /  0  0 So, net charge within

qi the surface is zero.
A surface can be drawn
arbitrarily close to
surface of conductor,
all net charge must be
 3. E immediately outside is  to the surface
Consider a small cylindrical surface at the
surface of the conductor;
E If E|| >0 it would cause surface
charge q to move thus it would
not be in electrostatic
E||
q equilibrium, thus E|| =0
Gauss’s Law q
  EA 
0
q
thus
E 
A 0

E 
cylinder is small enough that E is constant 0