CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

EDUCATION
Learning outcomes

to analyze the importance of

continuing professional education in
society
to demonstrate the ability to design
continuing professional education
program
to analyze the importance of
continuing professional education
on the basis of ethics, contextual,
and epistemology

todevelop a curiosity towards

knowledge
The definition and concept of Continuing
Professional Education (CPE)

- Definition
- History
- Profession
- Professionalization
Continuing professional education (CPE)
can be defined as
continuing or lifelong educational
pursuits that are mandated and/or
regulated by a
professional association
“the process of engaging in
education pursuits with the goal
of becoming up-to-date in the
knowledge and skills of one’s
profession”

(Weingand, 1999). CPE

“the education of professional
practitioners, regardless of their
practice setting, that follows their
preparatory curriculum and
extends their learning…
throughout their careers”

(Queeney,2000, p. 375).
 History
the history of adult education associations
in the United States dates back to the
1920s.
In 1925 and 1926, the Carnegie
Corporation sponsored a series of regional
conferences focused on adult education.
 Profession
(1) continuing education for what ? – the struggle
between updating professionals’ knowledge and
improving professional practice;
(2) who benefits -- from continuing education? –
the struggle between the learning agenda and the
political and economic agendas of continuing
education; and
(3) who will provide continuing education? –the
struggle for turf versus collaborative
relationships.
Sources of Continuing Professional
Education

Continuing professional education programs are

offered by a variety of organizations, each with
a particular set of purposes, some shared and
some discreet.
Universities, as the homes of most professional
training programs, are a major provider of CPE.
The challenges to be discussed are the
lifecycle of a profession, the meaning of
continuing professional education, and
defining terms by providers and across
professions.
The issues explored are professional
learning: How is it measured, facilitated,
and defined and
The development of CPE-providers: how
do CPE-providers acquire the skills and
knowledge they need?
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION
Education is a systematic process that seeks
to alter knowledge and skill

engaging learners interactively with teachers

or other knowledge resources

using a considered strategy to achieve an

effect in the altered knowledge, skill, or
attitudes of the learner.
Professional refers to people who engage
in work based on a large, complex body
of knowledge usually gained in
professional schools.

Professions include law, medicine,

architecture, engineering, education, and
other disciplines that codify practice.
continuing refers to the post-preparatory
phase of professional development.

the professional is engaged in practice on a

regular basis and is learning in ways that
adjust practice to:
- correct errors
- expand or adjust performance,
- introduce new or reformed practices
and perspectives on practices.
Continuing professional education
takes a variety of forms, some more
common than others and some that
are used often in one profession but
almost never in another. One of the
most common forms of CPE is in-
service or on-the-job training.
The role of CPE in Human Resource
Development
CPE is a field of practice and study
that is directed to the ongoing learning
needs of professionals

(Cervero, 2001).
the purpose of CPE “is to help
professionals provide higher quality
service to clients by improving their
knowledge, competence, or
performance” (Cervero, 1989, p.
518).
HRD improvements can be directed to the
individual, the larger system, and also the
meso area
between the individual and the larger
system where components and
subsystems
interact in complex ways
CPE focuses on contributing to individual
professionals, the professions, and
society, whereas
HRD focuses on the needs of
professionals, non professionals, and
collective
entities (e.g., work groups, organizations,
communities, nations, and humanity).
CPE -- Comparison
Purpose
To certify and improve professional
knowledge and practice
Improvement process
Learning

Focus
Individual professionals, professions,
and society
HRD Programs
Purpose
To improve satisfaction, learning and
performance
Improvement process
Learning and performance
Focus
Individuals, work groups, organizations,
communities, nations, and humanity
CPE programs aim to improve the
individual professional’s expertise

HRD programs aim to improve the larger

organization or collective entity.
CPE programs produce more highly
skilled, reflective practitioners who, in turn,
benefit the profession and society.
HRD programs produce learning and
performance at various levels
within complex productive systems to
affect learning and performance at
other levels
TREND 1.
The amount of continuing education
offered at the workplace dwarfs that
offered by any other type of provider, and
surpasses that of all other providers
combined.
TREND 2.
Universities and professional
associations are active and important
providers, with an increasing number of
programs being offered in distance
education formats.
TREND 3.

There are an increasing number of

collaborative arrangements among
providers, especially between universities
and workplaces.
-- INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
TREND 4.

Continuing education is being used more

frequently to regulate professionals’
practice.
CPE -- approaches & practices

Professionals must learn throughout their

working lives

The concept of lifelong education is a must in

every profession
The main purpose of professional
development should be to improve
practice

 (Cervero, 1998)
a) update professionals with new information
related to their field,
(b) assist professionals in developing a critical
and analytical way of considering knowledge,
(c) enable professionals to practice using
judgement skills, and
(d) assist them in developing new knowledge
based on practice

 (Cervero, 1988; Schon, 1987).

They learn through books, discussions
with colleagues, formal and informal
programs and the rigors of everyday
practice
Continuing Professional Education
(CPE) a form of formal learning has
increased …

The majority of associated activities

take the form of courses, workshops,
seminars, online provision and so forth
Many professions have a system of
accreditation for providers of CPE

Participation
in CPE as basis for relicensing
members of certain professions

In Malaysia CPE is not well established

◦ CPE should be more organized; proper planning
and evaluation, conducted by qualified personnel
◦ (Balan, 2006)
 CPE --- FOR THE PROFESSIONS

A new field of educational practice has

come into existence
In the USA journals in specific professions
CPE educators also form their own
associations
Traditional view: CPE must be directed by
its own members
By WHOM?

Professional bodies as stakeholders

Professional bodies have a clear commitment
to enhance the expertise of their members.
Organisations as stakeholders
Organisations have a substantial
interest in ensuring that their
employees continue to learn.
Professionals as stakeholders
The most important stake that professionals
have in ongoing mandatory CPE is that of
ensuring their good standing with their
profession so that they continue to be
registered and hold professional status.
Higher education as stakeholders
Higher education providers have a stake
in CPE in preparing novices for future
careers and in ongoing post-graduate
education.
It is important to identify the elements of
effective practice in CPE

To improve practice:

◦ to understand the assumptions and principles
that guide the work
◦ Examine whether they are the most useful
ones
◦ Change when necessary
 Benefits of CPE

Buildconfidence and credibility

Earn more
Achieve your career goals
Cope positively with change
Be more productive and efficient
 How CPE benefits the organisation

Helps maximise staff potential by linking

learning to actions and theory to practice.
Helps set SMART (specific, measurable,
achievable, realistic and time-bound)
objectives
Promotes staff development.
Helps give a positive image/brand to
organisations.
…

45 / 27
 STATIC APPROACH
 Oldest definition by Flexner (1915)
 There are certain objective standards
distinguish professions from other
occupations

Characteristics
1. Involve intellectual operations
2. Derive their material from science
3. Involve definite and practical ends
4. Possess an educationally communicable
technique
5. Tend to self-organization
6. Be altruistic
Sources of Professional Knowledge
Textbooks
Literature(journals)
Short term courses
Long term trainings (Masters, PhD…)
Educational meetings (Conferences, panels..)
Information from the media
Exchange of experience with colleagues
Reviving personal experience
Collecting experience out of school
Learning on own initiative

48 / 27
Static approach because objective criteria
firmly discriminate between professions
and ordinary occupations

Major problem of this approach: lack of

consensus about the criteria
 PROCESS APPROACH
Suggested by Vollmer and Mills (1966)

All occupations as existing on a continuum of

professionalization

The question is how professionalized is an

occupation?

All occupations go through a natural sequence in

their passage to professional status
The process ---
Occupations can deprofessionalize
The continuum is not a one-way street

No clear-cut boundary separates professions from

other occupations

Itrecognizes the dynamic conditions of

contemporary occupational structures

Professions never reach a point of becoming an

ideal profession for constant improvement and
continuing learning
The premise: professions are necessary to the
smooth and orderly functioning of society
In turn, society provides monetary rewards and
status
This approach does not recognize the social
inequalities as result of these rewards
These inequalities ARE interpreted as natural and
necessary
Criticism of this approach:

◦ The approach does not seek to understand the

professions in terms of how they gain and use their
power and authority

◦ Therefore it does not explain how occupations can

come to be viewed as more professionalized
SOCIO-ECONOMIC APPROACH
In Europe, the status and security of
occupations were gained by other means,
such as protections provided by their
governments
Becker (1962) has concluded that any
profession is a folk concept that is
historically and nationally specific
There is no such thing as an ideal
profession
Summary
CPE typically has more stakeholders

CPE is less controllable by organizations, and

decreased transferability

Professional training increase the costs to an

organization to provide or facilitate CPE of
professional workers.
MIND MAP
How professional learn?

Learning in cognitive psychology

The concept of situation-based

learning
How professional learning?
HOW PROFESSIONALS LEARN
AND ACQUIRE EXPERTISE
Model of professionals as learners:
◦ How professionals know
◦ How professionals incorporate
knowledge into practice
◦ Under what conditions professionals
learn best
◦ What role prior experience plays in
learning
Important for CPE educators
◦ Planning CPE objectives
◦ Learning experiences (activities)
◦ Evaluation of CPE

A model of professionals as learners

consistent with the critical viewpoint
◦ Learning based on reflection on
practice
Practical knowledge; time-bound and
situation-specific, personally compelling,
and directed toward action and it base on
technical knowledge

CPE must build on what professionals

already believe about their works;
uncover their rule of practice, practical
principles, and images that guide their
practices.
 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Study of mind and how it functions
Based on children and with computers
(AI)
Focus on acquisition of knowledge and
knowledge structures
Model of learner
◦ Learning is active, constructive, and goal-
oriented process depending upon the mental
activities
Schema theory

◦ How acquired knowledge is

organized in the mind

◦ How cognitive structures

facilitate the use of knowledge
Type of schema..
◦ Declarative knowledge

◦ Procedural knowledge
◦ Declarative knowledge -- refers
to factual knowledge and
information that a person knows.

◦ Procedural knowledge -- on
the other hand, is knowing how
to perform certain activities
 Declarative Knowledge

◦ Knowledge that
◦ Such as 2 + 2 = 4
◦ Knowledge about things
◦ Represented in memory as an
interrelated network of facts
◦ Academic knowledge, technical rational
knowledge
 Procedural Knowledge

◦ Knowledge know-how
◦ Such as producing the correct sum
when given an addition problem
◦ Practical knowledge; repertoire of
examples, metaphors, images, practical
principles, scenarios, or rules of thumb
◦ Developed primarily through prior
experience
Learning is an active process

◦ Educator must take into account

professionals’ prior knowledge
◦ Understanding and
interpretation of the information
depend on the availability of
appropriate schemata
◦ What the learner does is
important
 SCHON’S MODEL OF PROFESSIONAL
PRACTICE

Based on studies of architecture, town

planning, management, and organizational
consulting

Can be used to analyze other

professionals practices to suggest new
ways of educating professionals
According to Schon
professional practice is
characterized by turning
complex situations to
situations that the practitioner
knows how to solve
 Professional knowledge
Technical Rationality (TR)
◦ Dominant concept of professional
knowledge
◦ Knowledge as results form basic and
applied research within the university
setting
◦ Each profession has a body of knowledge
with four properties: specialized, firmly
bounded, scientific, and standardized
Schon suggests to examine professional
artistry (how practitioners actually
successful in solving indeterminate
zones of practice) rather than just
application of research-based
knowledge.

Schon suggests two form of knowing that

are central to professional :
◦ Knowing-in-action (KIA)
◦ Reflection-in-action (RIA)
 Knowing-in-action
Knowing is in the actions of
professionals
Actions are spontaneous no prior
systematic thinking
Judgments and decisions made were
not based on any rules or theories
This is the normal mode of practical
knowledge
 This form of knowing has three
properties
1. actions and judgments made
without prior thinking about them

2. not aware having learned to do

these things

3. cannot describe the knowledge

that the action reveals
Professionalpractice are characterized
by: uniqueness, uncertainty, and value
conflict

KIA will not solve a particular problem

Rather, one needs to construct the

situation to make it solvable
 Reflection-in-action
Professionals reflect in the midst of action

Their thinking reshapes what they are

doing while they are doing it

The goal is to change indeterminate

situations into determinate ones

The key is to bring past experience to

bear on current action
Past experience built up a repertoire of
examples, images, understandings, and
actions

New situation is seeing as something

already present in the repertoire

Past experience can make sense of the

current situation

The problem will be looked in a new way

 Acquisition of Professional
Knowledge
RIA can generate new practical knowledge
which add to the repertoire of knowledge

How RIA is acquired still open for research

RIA can occur spontaneously also but

need to be reflected in order to add to the
repertoire
 RIA and Implication to CPE
CPE should combine the teaching of
applied science (knowledge generated by
research) with coaching in the artistry of
RIA
The teaching of applied science should be
based on a model of the learner
There is a need to focus directly on the
acquisition of RIA
Formal CPE should be a place where
practitioners learn to reflect on their own
tacit theories

This is a repertoire-building process

Using the case method and case histories
will connect university-based research and
theories combined with professional work
experience into practical ways of knowing
Improving professionals’ ability to RIA is the
basis for professional artistry
RIA also as source of knowledge
RIA must be part of CPE

Professionalswould reflect on the

frameworks they intuitively bring to their
performance

CPE facilitators would teach like

coaches; explaining, demonstrating,
simulation and reflecting with learners
on the frameworks that underlie their
work
 A Model of the Learner
Value choice depends on the ends one wish to
achieve

Critical viewpoint aims to improve professional

artistry or the professionals’ ability to operate in
the indeterminate zones of practice

Functionalist viewpoint stresses the importance

of acquiring as much technical knowledge
(knowledge that) to be applied to practice
The choice of which model of the learner
must be situation-specific

Model of learner based on the critical

viewpoint:
◦ also recognize the need to learn technical
knowledge
◦ Not to be used in all situations
◦ Should be the dominant model
◦ To improve professional artistry
 Two forms of knowing should be
fostered through CPE:

1. Practical knowledge/procedural
knowledge/know-how

2. Reflection-in-action/thinking in
action/intuition/problem finding
Practical knowledge
◦ Repertoire of examples, metaphors, images,
practical principles, scenarios, or rules of
thumb
◦ Unique to own practice
◦ Developed primarily through prior experience
◦ Most professionals are not fully aware of the
knowledge in their repertoires
◦ CPE should help them to make this
knowledge explicit in order to develop new
knowledge
Reflection-in-action
◦ Professionals use similar skills to construct an
understanding of situations both within and
outside their practice

CPE strategy to foster these forms of

knowing: they can be learned but cannot
be taught

Cognitive psychologists: what the learner

does is more important in determining what
is learned than what the teacher does
In order to develop either kind of knowing,
CPE should provide experientially based
methods such as case studies, coaching,
discovery method, etc.

This knowledge also can be acquired

through daily practice by doing research in
practice

Everyday practice is not necessary right

Practical knowledge must be justified on the

basis of public criteria rather than private
ones
THE CPE FOUR PILLARS

MISSION

VISION

VALUES

GOALS
MISSION
Why do we exist?
VISION
What kind of profession are we trying to create?
VALUES
What attitudes, behaviors, and commitments
must we demonstrate in order to create the
GOALS
Which steps should we take first?
What is our timeline?
What evidence will we present to demonstrate
our progress?
The “CULTURE” of a Professional
Learning
1. Shared Mission, 4. Action
Vision, Values,
Experimentation
Goals

2. Collective 5. Continuous
Inquiry Improvement

3. Collaborative 6. Focus on Results

Teams
Examples of CPE Learning Spaces
Communities of Professional
Practice Regulatory Bodies
Special Interest Professional
Group Associations
Higher Learning Face to face CPE
Institution Study courses
Group Online CPE courses
Online Learning
Community
Models of CPD
Lieberman (1996) classified CPD into three types:
direct teaching (such as courses & workshops);

learning in school (such as peer coaching, critical

friendships, mentoring, action research, and task-
related planning teams);

out of school learning (such as learning networks,

visits to other schools, school-university
partnerships and so on).
Kennedy (2005) described nine
models of CPD ----
 Models of CPE
• training;
• award-bearing;
• deficit;
• cascade;
• standard-based;
• coaching/mentoring;
• community of practice;
• action research;
• transformative.
Training - focuses on skills, with
expert delivery, and little practical
focus
 • Training

supports a skills-based,

update their skills in order to be able to

demonstrate their competence.
Generally ‘delivered’ to the teacher by an ‘expert’
the agenda determined by the deliverer, and the
participant placed in a passive role.
While the training can take place within the
institution in which the participant works,
 TD --- four phases

Needs assessment
Design
Develop
Implementation
Evaluation
TD --- Process
 Award Bearing

Award Bearing – usually in

conjunction with a higher education
institution, this brings the worrying
discourse on the irrelevance of
academia to the fore
 The Award-bearing Model

An award-bearing model of CPD is one

that relies on the completion of award-
bearing programmes of study – usually,
but not exclusively, validated by
universities.

This external validation can be viewed as

a mark of quality assurance, but equally
can be viewed as the exercise of control
by the validating and/or funding bodies.
Deficit model
Deficit - this looks at addressing
shortcomings in an individual teacher, it
tends to be individually tailored, but may
not be good for confidence and is
unsupportive of the development of a
collective knowledge base within the
school
Deficit …
 The Cascade Model

The cascade model involves

individual teachers attending
‘training events’ and then cascading
or disseminating the information to
colleagues. It is commonly employed
in situations where resources are
limited.
 The Standard-based Model
Before considering the characteristics of
the standards-based model of CPD, it is
worth giving some consideration to the
terminology used.
‘Standard’ as opposed to ‘competencies’
Standard Based – this assumes that there
is a system of effective teaching, and is
not flexible in terms of teacher learning.
It can be useful for developing a common
language but may be very narrow and
limiting
The Coaching/Mentoring Model

The coaching/mentoring model

covers a variety of CPD practices that
are based on a range of philosophical
premises. However, the defining
characteristic of this model is the
importance of the one-to-one
relationship, generally between two
teachers (coach and/or mentor),
which is designed to support CPD.
Both coaching and mentoring share this
characteristic, although most attempts to
distinguish between the two suggest that
coaching is more skills based and
mentoring involves an element of
‘counselling and professional friendship’
A confidential process through which two or
more colleagues
work together to reflect upon current
practices; expand, refine
and build new skills; share ideas; conduct
action research;
teach one another, or problem solving within
the workplace.
Coaching / Mentoring – the
development of a non-threatening
relationship can encourage
discussion, but a coach or mentor
needs good communication skills
 The Community of Practice Model

There is a clear relationship between

communities of practice and the mutually
supportive and challenging form of the
coaching/mentoring model discussed
above.
Community of Practice – these may
inhibit active and creative innovation of
practice depending on the power relation
among members,
although they have the potential to work
well through combining the knowledge
bases of members
The essential difference between the
two is that a community of practice
generally involves more than two
people, and would not necessarily
rely on confidentiality.
 The Action Research Model

Action research as ‘the study of a social

situation, involving the participants
themselves as researchers, with a view to
improving the quality of action within it’. The
‘quality of action’ can be perceived as the
participants’ understanding of the situation, as
well as the practice within the situation.
Action Research – This is relevant to
the classroom, and enables teachers
to experiment with different
practices, especially if the action
research is collaborative.
 The Transformative Model

‘transformative model’ of CPD involves

the combination of a number of processes
and conditions –
The central characteristic is the
combination of practices and conditions
that support a transformative agenda.
Transformative – the integration of
several different types of the previous
models, with a strong awareness and
control of whose agenda is being
addressed
first four of these were essentially
transmission methods, which give
little opportunity for learners to take
control over their own learning.
The following 3 are more transformational,
giving an increasing capacity for professional
autonomy, with the action research and
transformative models being able to provide
even more professional autonomy, and giving
professional learners the power to determine
their own learning pathways.
Reflective Practice
reflective practice
Reflection is what
allows us to learn
from our experiences:
it is an assessment of
where we have been
and where we want to
go next.
~ Kenneth Wolf
Definition
"a set of abilities and skills, to
indicate the taking of a critical
stance, an orientation to
problem solving or state of
mind" (Moon,1999: 63).
Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory
Why Reflect?
Reflection helps learners to:
understand what they already know (individual)
identify what they need to know in order to
advance understanding of the subject
(contextual)
make sense of new information and feedback in
the context of their own experience (relational)
guide choices for further learning
(developmental)
Learning Cycle
Personal Reflections
Priorities?
Time management?
Motivation?
Direction?
Strengths / Weaknesses?
Identifying problems
Developing an action plan
Reflection involves:
Slowing down……..
Pause to examine, analyse, inquire about
complexities of life
active choice to pause and examine – not
passive process
Cognitive processes – analysis, synthesis,
evaluation
Many different forms and functions –
many ways to reflect
Reflecting – A State of Mind
Learning Styles show preferences
not everyone is as reflective – some more
action oriented etc
Reflection can be encouraged by:
Structuring in time schedule
Using journal, diary etc
realistic assessment gives strength
Experiential learning theory
Itis not enough just to do, and neither is it
enough just to think.

Learning from experience must involve

links between the doing and the thinking
How to become a reflective learner
1. Establish objectives
2. Recognise current level of performance
3. Plan how to meet targets
4. Use effective time management
5. Use feedback and support
6. Monitor and review progress
7. Critically reflect on own learning
Recognising Domains of Learning
Bloom's Taxonomy:

1.Cognitive Domain – knowledge based

2. Psychomotor domain – skills based

3. Affective domain – attitudes, feelings

Cognitive domain
lowestlevel – knowledge –recall of data
comprehension –
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Highest level - Evaluation – critiques,
judgements about value of ideas
Relevance to Career Path
Employers look for
self-reflective people with:
Skills of analysis,
Interpersonal skills,
self development,
critical reflection on performance
Setting Objectives
What is an objective?
An objective is a clearly defined target
that has the following characteristics:
1. SPECIFIC
2. MEASURABLE
3. ACHIEVABLE
4. REALISTIC
5. TIME-BOUND
Professional Development Plan
(PDP)
What is a PDP?
A way of recording, reflecting on and
writing about the practical outcomes of
experiences
a personalised record of one's career or
experiences
a loose-leaf folder in which you keep the
written record of your career
need not be restricted to written materials
Why keep a PDP?

It provides you with a record of your

professional development.
useful as a means of updating a Curriculum
Vitae
It personalises learning by encouraging the
person to own and value their development and
achievements. 
It enables the individual to demonstrate
coherence in their professional development and
plan for the future
 The Assignment
Part A: In a session with your SSF tutor
to discuss the feedback from your
semester one work,
What am I good at? What am I not so
good at?
Select a higher-level
academic skill you wish
to develop and outline a
What practices I What areas I wish
plan for development.
want to continue to improve in
The Process
(a) How are you going to develop the skill?
Eg. use Semester 2 assignment(s) as the vehicle
(b) What is the time frame for this
development?
Eg. up until end of semester – and beyond
(c) How are you going to check whether you
have been successful at developing this skill?
Eg. Obtain continuous feedback from tutors,
peers, test yourself using past papers etc
Monitoring the Process
 PART B.
WORKING ON YOUR
PERSONAL/ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
PLAN.
On this sheet, keep a diary of your development
work and note any issues or thoughts that occur
to you whilst engaged in it. Include any changes
you make to your personal/academic
development plan during this time.
Reflecting on the PDP
 PART C.
 Do you feel you have succeeded in your
personal/academic development? If so, why? If not,
why not?
 What changes would you make to the
Personal/Academic Development Plan if you had to do
it again?
 What is the main thing you learnt from the process?
 What other things have you learnt from the process?
 What ideas have you had for developing other areas of
your own practice?
Marks will be gained for:
Evidence of reflection on the feedback from
semester 1;
A detailed and in-depth assessment of
academic strengths and weaknesses
(including higher-level cognitive skills);
A clear plan of action to support the
development of your chosen skill;
Evidence of a systematic and continuous
attempt to improve the chosen skill;
A detailed evaluation of the degree of success
of your development plan.
Bibliography
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning:
experience as the source of learning &
development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Moon. J. (1999a) Learning Journals: A
handbook for Academics, Students and
Professional Development. Kogan Page,
London.
Moon, J. (1999b) Reflection in Learning and
Professional Development: Theory & Practice.
Kogan Page, London
How Professionals
develop one’s
expertise ?
Reflective Practice
Definitions, Models & Methods

Accessed from
http://itslifejimbutnotasweknowit.org.uk/files/RefPract/ReflectivePractice_detailed.ppt.
Reflection: A Definition (1)

‘Reflection is an important human activity in which

people recapture their experience, think about it,
mull over & evaluate it. It is this working with
experience that is important in learning’.

Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. (1985) p 43 Reflection: Turning Experience

into Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Reflection: A Definition (2)

‘We learn through critical reflection by putting

ourselves into the experience & exploring
personal & theoretical knowledge to understand
it & view it in different ways.

Tate, S. & Sills, M. (eds) (2004) p 126 The Development of Critical

Reflection in the Health Professions. London; Higher Education Authority.
Reflection: Informal & informal
Informal Reflection
• Involves self- questioning
• Develops our awareness of our own
assumptions

Formal Reflection
• Draws on research & theory
• Provides guidance & frameworks for practice.
Models of Reflection
Dewey’s (1938) 5 Stage Model

1. We identify a problem that is perplexing & ‘felt’

2. We observe & refine the identified problem to create a
fuller understanding
3. We develop a hypothesis or an understanding about
the problem, its origins & possible solutions
4. We subject the hypothesis to scrutiny & reasoning
5. We test the hypothesis or understanding in practice

Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. Troy, MN: Rinehart & Winston.
Models of Reflection
Schon’s (1983) ‘Reflection in Action’

Reflection in action concerns thinking about something whilst

engaged in doing it, having a feeling about something & practicing
according to that feeling.

This model celebrates the intuitive & artistic approaches that can be
brought to uncertain situations.

Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. London: Temple Smith

Models of Reflection
Kolb’s (1984) Learning Cycle
1. Concrete Experience: The event
2. Reflective observation: Consider what has happened
from a variety of perspectives e.g. own feelings, the
group’s, an individual student’s view
3. Abstract conceptualisation: Re-package & process
your reflections into a theoretical understanding (use
theory to analyse the event)
4. Active Experimentation: Armed with this new
understanding, you do it again, differently this time.

Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. New Jersey; Prentice Hall

Models of Reflection
Boud’s (1985) Experiential Learning

1. Return to an event, incident or experience & record it

2. Consider it in detail at an emotional and cognitive level
3. Re-evaluate the event in the light of experience, knowledge
& experimentation. Seek to understand the meaning of the
experience
4. Plan for what you might change.

Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. (1985) Reflection: Turning Experience into
Learning. London: Kogan Page.
 Models of Reflection
John’s Ten C’s of Reflection (2000)
 Commitment Accept responsibility & be open to change
 Contradiction Note tension between actual & desired practice
 Conflict Harness this energy to take appropriate action
 Challenge Confront your own typical actions, beliefs &
attitudes in a non-threatening way
 Catharsis Work through negative feelings
 Creation Move beyond old self to novel alternatives
 Connection Connect new insights in the world of practice
 Caring Realise desirable practice
 Congruence Reflection as a mirror for caring
 Constructing Building personal knowledge in practice

Johns, C. (2000). Becoming a Reflective Practitioner. Oxford; Blackwell

Barriers to Reflection

Practical Barriers

Kolb (1984) sees that to reflect effectively on

your experience, you should actively set aside
part of your working day to reflect & analyse.
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. New Jersey; Prentice Hall
Barriers to Reflection

Psychological Barriers

Fear of judgement, fear of criticism, being closed

to feedback, defensiveness, professional arrogance.
 Bridges to Reflection
• Non-judgemental support, e.g. mentor, manager
• Feeling ‘safe’ enough – or we may use ‘expedient’ learning
& do what we expect will get us through
• A role model, e.g. a mentor who reflects on their own
practice
• Knowledge of as many methods as possible
• As many opportunities as possible for engaging in
reflection, e.g. pairs, groups
• Time & Energy.
Ixer, G. (2003) Developing the relationship between reflective practice & social
work values. Journal of Practice Teaching, 5, 1, pp 7-22.
 Methods of Reflection
Narratives

A Narrative is a story of an experience or

event:
 Written in the first person, i.e. I felt… I thought …
 Learner-centred in that it allows the learner’s voice to be
heard
 Enables links to be made between personal & professional
development
 Can be shared to allow deeper reflection & comparison.
 Methods of Reflection
Reflective Journal

A Reflective Journal focuses on:

• Your reaction to the event or experience
• Different ways that you might look at it
• How the experience links with other experiences
• How you can understand the experience in the light of theory
• What you have learned in the situation
• What you need to learn
• How you might achieve your identified learning goals
 Methods of Reflection
Critical Incident

A critical incident is an incident that is in some

way significant to the individual recounting it.
You should record:

• What the situation was

• What you did in it
• What happened as a result of your actions
• A reflection on the situation or event & the process by
which it unfolded.
 The Importance of Reflection

Reflection enables us to:

• Be conscious of our potential for bias & discrimination.
• Make the best use of the knowledge available.
• Challenge & develop the existing professional knowledge
base
• Avoid past mistakes
• Maximise our own opportunities for learning.
The Importance of Reflection

Unless we make conscious & systematic efforts

to critique our own practice:
• We will be unaware of how & when we are being
discriminatory
• We will not make use of the knowledge base
developed by our own profession
• We will continue to repeat the same mistakes
• Our skills will stagnate rather then develop.
References
Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. (1985) Reflection: Turning Experience
into Learning. London: Kogan Page.

Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. MN: Rinehart & Winston

Ixer, G. (2003) Developing the relationship between reflective practice &

social work values. Journal of Practice Teaching, 5, 1, pp 7-22.

Johns, C. (2000). Becoming a Reflective Practitioner. Oxford; Blackwell

Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. New Jersey

Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. London: Temple Smith

Tate, S. & Sills, M. (eds) (2004) p 126 The Development of Critical

Reflection in the Health Professions. London; Higher Education Authority
PURPOSE OF SESSION

• to explain action learning and how it underpins Work-Applied

Learning

• to highlight the role of reflective practice in Work-Applied Learning

• to explore action research as a Work-Applied Learning process

ACTION LEARNING - DEFINITION
(Passfield, 2001)

Action learning within an organisational context involves learning in and

through action while collaborating with others on personal and
organisational improvement. It typically involves a learning group (often
called a “learning set”) focused on a project or work endeavour.

Action learning takes people outside their comfort zone, provides

supportive challenge, builds relationships, raises personal and
organisational awareness and builds confidence along with
competence.
ACTION LEARNING CYCLE
ACTION LEARNING - NORMS

• offer advice, challenge, and support

• challenge assumptions

• reflect & develop questioning insight

• treat each others as peers

• admit what we do not know and what is not working well

• take a system perspective

• accept responsibility for own actions and own learning.

ACTION LEARNING - VALUES

• inclusiveness and respect for diversity

• honesty and integrity

• collaboration

• relationships are important

ACTION LEARNING – VISIBLE ROI

• Improved productivity

• Reduced costs

• Innovation

• Increased sales

• Quality service

• Knowledge creation and knowledge sharing

ACTION LEARNING – HIDDEN ROI

• Confidence to use pre-existing competencies

• An expanded view of what they are capable of

• Removal of erroneous assumptions

• Increased congruence between words and actions

• Improved understanding of organisational context

• Capacity for reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action

• Deep relationships that fuel positive, systemic outcomes

• Development of new competencies and confidence

• Enhanced capacity as a change agent.

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE– DEFINITION
(Schön 1983: 68)

The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or

confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects
on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which
have been implicit in his behaviour. He carries out an experiment which
serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a
change in the situation.
KOLB – EXPERIMENTAL LEARNING (1984)
SOME REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS

• What did I set out to do?

• What action did I take?

• What were the assumptions behind my actions?

• What desired outcomes did I achieve?

• What were the unintended consequences?

• How did I/they feel about what happened?

• How has this experience changed my understanding of the situation?

• What will I do differently next time?

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE - STANCES

• Reflection-on-action (Schön) – reflection after action

• Reflection-in-action (Schön) – reflection in the course of action

• Reflection about action (Zeichner, 1993) – reflection on the context

(social, political, educational)
ACTION RESEARCH
(Adapted from Bob Dick, AREOL Resources)

Action research focuses simultaneously on action (creating change and

improvement) and research (exploration and understanding). Change is
created through participative processes designed to achieve the desired
outcomes. Research is embedded in the situation and change
processes.

Action research is cyclical in nature with the constant interplay between

action and reflection and between change and research.
ACTION RESEARCH
(Passfield 2013)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

• Cyclical

• Participative

• Grounded

• Responsive

• Eclectic

• Qualitative & Quantitative

• Critically reflective

• Emergent
DATA COLLECTION AND RIGOUR

• Multiple cycles with embedded critical reflection

• Multiple respondents

• Multiple data sources

• Seeking disconfirming evidence

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

• Interviewing

• Focus Groups

• Convergent Interviewing

• Observation and recording

• Video and audio capture

• Survey

• Journaling

• Intervention/evaluation tools

• Software to capture reflections, insights, concepts

• Reports – verbal and written

AR CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

• Contribution to understanding - process and content

• Level of knowledge – concepts, principles, theory of action, models

• Model for action

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE AND ALAR

• Reflective practice develops individual professionalism

• Reflective practice enriches the reflection phase of action learning

and action research

• Action learning and action research add the social dimension and
rigour to the reflective process
FURTHER READING

• Kolb, David (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

• Dick, Bob, Action Research and Evaluation Online (AREOL) (online course open to the
public – can be accessed in own time or at scheduled times as a 14 week email course
with a global participant group). http://www.aral.com.au/areol/

• Passfield R. (2012) Action Research Strategies for Sustainable Development in Public

Sector Organisations in Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt (Ed.), Action Research for Sustainable
Development in a Turbulent World, Emerald Publishing Group, Bingley, UK, 189-203.

• Schön, Donald (1983) Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action, Basic
Books, New York.

• Shankar Sankaran, Bob Dick, Ron Passfield & Pam Swepson (Eds.) (2001), Effective
Change Management Using Action Learning and Action Research: Concepts,
Frameworks, Processes, Applications Southern Cross University Press, Lismore,
Australia.

• Zeichner, K.M. (1993) Action Research: Personal Renewal and Social Reconstruction,
Educational Action Research, 1, 199-220.
Practice-Audit CPE Model
The Practice Audit Model, a direct
outgrowth of the Pennsylvania
Pharmacists' Professional Development
Program, provides a systematic
framework in which to assess
occupational and professional
practitioners' continuing education needs
and develop programs to meet those
needs.
The ultimate objective of the Practice Audit
Model is to assist professionals in their
attempt to remain competent practitioners
through a collaborative effort that uses the
particular expertise of educators,
professional association representatives, and
continuing education professionals. The
model can be a useful device for continuing
professional education