Seismic and Sequence Stratigraphy

(Background Principles & Concepts)

A. A. Durogbitan (PhD)
Seismic and sequence stratigraphic : Aims

• Outline basic concepts of sequence stratigraphy and models

used to interpret basin fills
• Detail the approaches used to analysis seismic, well log, core
and outcrop data using sequence stratigraphy methodology
• Discuss the influence of sediment flux, eustatic sea-level and
tectonics on sequence development- sequence variability
• Discus: 1) the distribution of reservoir, source and seal facies
and (2) reservoir geometry, continuity and heterogeneity
within a sequence stratigraphic framework
What is sequence stratigraphy?
Sequence stratigraphy is:
• Based on vertical and lateral facies relationships- Walther’s Law
• Subdivision of sedimentary basin fills into genetic packages bounded
by time- significant surfaces (chronostratigraphy)
• Units and bounding surfaces controlled by changes in relative sea-
level and sediment flux (stacking patterns)
• Provide a time- framework for the correlation, mapping and
prediction of stratigraphy from basin- to field- scales

Advantages:
• Provides a process based interpretation
• Predictive (spatial and temporal relationship of facies)
• Application to seismic, log, core and outcrop
• Common language for communication between disciplines
Lithostratigraphy vs sequence stratigraphy

Lithostratigraphic correlation
• Conglomerate units 1 and 2
• Sandstone units 3, 4 and 5
• Mudstone units 6, 7 and 8

Sequence stratigraphic correlation

* Time line A-A’, B-B’ and C-C’
What is a sequence?
• Sequence is a relatively conformable succession of genetically
related strata bounded above and below by unconformities or their
correlative conformities

A Sequence

• Sequence Boundary: surfaces that form the top and base of a sequence
- Strata above the boundary are younger than those below (Law of Superposition)
- Updip show evidence of subaerial exposure or incision
- Downdip may be correlative conformity
Underlying principles
Walther’s Law: Facies that occur in conformable
vertical successions of strata also in laterally
adjacent environments

• Genetically-related strata obey Walther’s Law

• Gradual migration of facies belts lead to
predictable vertical facies successions
Genetic succession: basinward migration
• Regression
- Basinward translation of the coastline position
• Progradation
- Basinward migration of facies belts/clinoforms (i.e. the sediment body
- Vertical facies sequence indicated overall shallowing, at log, offshore
overlain by shoreface and coastal plain facies
Genetic succession: landward migration
• Transgression
- Landward translation of the coastline

• Retrogradation
- Landward migration of facies belts/clinoforms (i.e. the sediment body)
- Vertical facies sequence indicates overall deepening, at Log, coastal plain
overlain by shoreface and offshore facies
Key stratal surface 1
• Surfaces across which genetic relationships
break down are significant depositional
discontinuities: (Facies dislocation)
- Sequence boundary: and unconformity that
represents a significant hiatus, associated with
subaerial exposure and incision

• Abrupt shallowing
Abrupt basinward shift in facies associated with erosion hiatus. At
log, offshore mudstones pass sharply into coastal plain deposits with
no shoreface developed
Key stratal surface 2
• Surfaces across which genetic relationships
break down are significant depositional
discontinuities:
- Flooding surface: surface with deeper- water strata
resting abruptly on shallower water strata

• Abrupt deepening
Abrupt landward shift in facies associated with non-depositional hiatus.
At log, coastal plain deposits pass sharply into offshore mudstones to
with no shoreface developed- facies dislocation
Sequence stratigraphy
• Sequence stratigraphy divides the basin fill into a hierarchy of
genetically- related stratal packages separated by key stratal
surfaces which are chronostratigraphically significant
Controls on depositional sequences
• Dynamic interplay of controls influences bounding surface, 3-D form
and internal character of depositional sequences
Controls on depositional sequence
• Complex interplay between major controls
• Eustasy global sea-level change)
• Tectonics (subsidence or uplift)
• Sediment supply
• Climate
• Compaction
• Basin Physiography
Eustatic sea- level
• A change in elevation in sea-level on the world-wide basis relative
to the stationary datum at the centre of the earth
• Two main components of eustatic change work at different rates
and magnitudes:
– Glacial (10s m/1,000 yr up to 10s m/100 yr
– Tectonic (0.2m/100,000yr

Eustasy, relative sea level and water depth (Posamentier et al., 1988).
Tectono-eustasy

• Changes in ocean volume by large-scale plate

interactions, mainly changing ocean ridge volume
• Long-term variation (e.g 100-300m fall since late
Cretaceous)
Glacio-eustasy
• Inherent to ice climatic periods
• Asymmetric, high amplitude cycle; up to c. 100m change between
glacial and interglacial; rapid rise (melt) and gradual fall (freeze)
• Cycles high frequency (e.g. 20, 40, 100 kyr) due to Milankovitch
mechanisms
Tectonics

• Subsidence and uplift rates vary depending on basin-forming

process: f (stretching, cooling, loading, flexure)
• In fault-controlled basins, rates of subsidence and uplift may
approach those of glacio-eustasy
• Spatial distribution of uplift/subsidence is complex in many
sedimentary basins
• Pseudo-cyclic changes from subsidence to uplift may occur due to:
– Migration of locus of active faulting or peripheral bulge
– Changes in intraplate stress
Compaction
• Best observed over antecedent shelf-edges where
– Strata with different compaction potential are juxtaposed
– Wedge shaped stratal packages are deposited
• Causes addition of accommodation space, rotation of depositional
surface, local fracturing
Interaction of controls: relative sea-level

• Relative sea-level: f (eustasy, tectonic subsidence and compaction)

• Accommodation: the space made available for potential sediment
accommodation due to change in relative sea-level
– Relative rise adds accommodation space
– Relative fall takes space away

Accommodation as a function of eustasy and subsidence (Jervey, 1988).

Interaction of controls: relative sea-level
• Even during eustatic stillstand or fall, relative sea-level may continue
to rise (adding to accommodation space) if rate of subsidence
(compaction or tectonic) is high enough

Accommodation space through time (Jervey, 1988).

Different order of cyclicity

Sequence hierarchy terminology in terms of order and corresponding duration (Vail et al., 1991).
 Interaction of controls: Sediment supply and relative
sea-level
• Basin fill geometry is
largely controlled by the
interaction of
accommodation change
and rate of sediment
influx

• For a given rate of sea-

level rise, depending on
the sediment flus, a
shoreline may remain
stationary or undergo
regression or transgression
 Interaction of controls: Sediment supply and relative
sea-level
• Interaction of accommodation and sediment flux result in a number of
predictable geometries
Basin Physiography
• Two main types of basin margin have an effect on sequences
• shelf-break margins
• Abrupt change from gentle dipping shelf to steeper slope associated with
shallow to deep water transition
• Shelf dip <0.5 degree, slope dip 3-6 degrees
• Common along passive and fault-controlled margins

• Ramp margins
• Uniform low angle dips <1 degree, most generally <0.5 degree
• Gradual increase in water depth
• Common in non-fault controlled cratonic basins
Historical Perspective: Wheeler & Sloss

• Wheeler (1958) and Sloss

(1963) recognised advantages
of correlating time-
synchronous stratal surfaces

• Sloss (1963): 6 major stratal

units (termed ‘sequences’)
bounded by inter-regional
unconformities from
Precambrian to Holocene on
the North American craton
Historical Perspective: Seismic Stratigraphy
• Development of seismic
stratigraphy in 1970s by
EXXON (Vail and co-workers)
AAPG Memoir 26
– Time significance of seismic
reflections
– Systematic organisation of seismic
stratigraphic surfaces and packages
in to spanning 0.5-3 Myr
– Suggested eustasy as the dominant
driving forces
• Exploration/basin-scale
application

The basic concept of the depositional sequence

(Mitchum et al., 1977).
Historical Perspective: Seismic Stratigraphy
• Development of high resolution sequence stratigraphy to log and
outcrop
– Focus on interaction between sediment supply and accommodation
– Subdivision of sequences into system tracts and parasequences
• Application to development and production
– Reservoir continuity and connectivity

Lithofacies and flow unit subdivision

of the Shannon Sandstone in the
Hartzog Draw Field Powder River
Basin, Wyoming. (Modified from
Hearn et al. 1984).
Historical Perspective: Seismic Stratigraphy

• Sequence variability
– There is sequence variability in seismic stratigraphy which are caused by the
local controls
– This inplies that seismic stratigraphy should not be used as template but as a
tools
Seismic Stratigraphy
Seismic Stratigraphy: Aims

• Introduce stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection data

• Discuss time-significance of seismic reflections
• Outline main types of reflector terminations and seismic surfaces
• Outline main elements of seismic facies analysis
Seismic stratigraphy: underlying concept
• Ideas behind seismic stratigraphy based on work undertaken by
Vail et al, published in AAPG Memoir 26 (Vail et al, ,1977 papers)
• Seismic sequence: a relatively conformable succession of
genetically related strata bounded at its top and base by
unconformities and their correlative conformities’
Seismic stratigraphy: underlying concept
• Assumed that primary seismic reflections represent a major bedding
surfaces and these approximate to time line (e.g. present sea floor)
• Lateral facies changes do not usually generate seismic reflections.
They are represented by the variation in reflector character (e.g.
amplitude, continuity) as the impedance contrast across bedding
surfaces changes (e.g. facies changes)
Seismic stratigraphy: underlying concept
• Seismic stratigraphic methodology utilises chronostratigraphic
significance of reflection. Thus the end of reflections (terminations)
indicate some sort of hiatus and the seismic surface along which
termination align will be one of non-deposition or erosion
Interpretation methodology
• Identify reflector Seismic sequence analysis
terminations
• Use consistent reflector
termination to identify key
seismic surfaces
• Map seismic surfaces and
define external form of
seismic sequences
Interpretation methodology
• Delineate seismic facies based
on main reflector characteristics
– Geometry
– Continuity
– Amplitude
– Frequency
• Examine attributes
• Interpret gross depositional
environments (GDE) and
component facies
Reflection terminations

Terminology for stratigraphic terminations developed from

seismic data (Mitchum et al., 1977).
 

• Consistent patterns of reflector termination defined SEISMIC

SURFACES, permitting subdivision of seismic data into
packages that have stratigraphic and chronostratigraphic
significance
• High amplitude reflections are not always seismic surfaces
Seismic surfaces

• Non-marine: subaerial erosional truncation (below), basinward shift

in coastal onlap (above). Represent relative sea-level fall
– Coastal onlap is the proximal onlap of topset reflections (assumed to
approximate to sea-level). Recognition of these topset is the key to
recognising a coastal onlap.
• Marine: marine onlap or downlap (above), apparent truncation,
marine erosional truncation, marine erosional truncation or
conformity (below). Represent condensation
Seismic surfaces
• Recognition of theses different types of seismic surfaces allow
systematic subdivision of seismic data into depositional sequences
and component systems tracts
• Sequence bounding unconformities (depositional sequence
boundaries)are defined by non-marine seismic surfaces
• Within sequences, identification of marine seismic surfaces are
subdivision of a sequence into component stratal packages-
SYSTEM TRACTS
Seismic facies analysis
• Seismic facies are 3-D unit composed groups of a reflections that
are similar to one another. Typical reflector characteristic are:
– Geometry
– Continuity, amplitude and frequency
– External form
– Attributes
• Generally no unequivocal link between seismic facies and
depositional environments (probable exception between
clinoform and slope systems
• Crucial factor in interpreting seismic facies are:
– Position in the basin (relative to shelf edge and base of slope
– Position within a depositional sequence
– Adjacent seismic facies
– Well/core calibration
Reflector geometry

• One of the easiest parameters to define and map. Their geological

interpretation reflects bedding patterns, depositional process,
erosion and palaeotopography, fluid contact, subsidence
• Typical reflector geometry include:
– Parallel
– Sub-parallel
– Divergent
– Hummocky
– Clinoform

Illustration of the main styles of seismic facies reflection patterns (modified form Mitchum et al, 1977b)
Reflector geometry: clinoforms
• Clinoform geometries are a crucial component of seismic facies
analysis. Their geometries provide stratigraphic information on
relative sea-level change, water depth and the balance between
accommodation and sediment supply
• Key aspects are:
– Clinoform height approximates to water depth
– Proximal coastal onlap
– Trajectory of the offlap break (proxy for accommodation vs sediment supply
Reflector geometry: clinoforms
• Typical clinoform types are
• Sigmoidal
• Shingled
• Oblique
• Hummocky
Reflector continuity
• Reflector continuity depends on the continuity of p,v contrast along a
stratal surface and is related to depositional process/environment.

– High continuity: uniform deposition e.g. basinal, mid-outer shelf.

– Low continuity: variable facies, e.g. fluvial channel belts and muddy floodplain
Reflector amplitude
• Reflector amplitude depends largely on the degree of p,v contrast
and reflects depositional process/environment (bed spacing, fluids).
– High amplitude: marked lithology changes e.g. coal, evaporates (also fluid
contacts DHIs)
– Low amplitude: uniform facies or gradual changes vertical facies transitions
e.g. shale-prone basin floor

2D time-migrated line with an anomalous

high-amplitude reflection, indicated by
the black arrow. Red events are negative
amplitudes (troughs) and blue events are
positive amplitudes (peaks). The trough-
over-peak signature of the anomaly
suggests that it can be interpreted as a thin
(below tuning) hydrocarbon bearing
reservoir. Note similar trough-over-peak
anomalies to the right of the highlighted
event (courtesy PGS).
Reflector frequency
• Reflector frequency depends on the input signal frequency, but also
reflects bed spacing

– High frequency: rapid alternation of different lithology

– Low frequency: poorly bedded/uniform lithology

External form
• Seismic facies units are 3-D packages of stratigraphy and their
external form provides additional information of depositional
environment/process
Attributes
• A measurable property of seismic data, such as amplitude, dip,
phase and polarity
• Attributes can be measured at one instant in time or over a time
window, and may be measured on a single trace, on a set of traces,
or on a surface interpreted from data
• Surface-based attributes: Extract seismic information at or near a
pick horizon (e.g. amplitude), or information from interpreted
horizons (grids) where no seismic data is used (e.g. dip, azimuth,
curvature
• Volume-based attributes: Describe changes within a specified
interval (around a horizon or between two horizons
Commonly used attributes

• Seismic amplitude: Function of the trace amplitude: used to

identify bright/dim spots and as a proxy for lithology variations.
Often used in conjunction with other attributes
• Apparent Polarity: Polarity of the Reflection Strength multiplied
by the Reflection Strength and is proportional to the Acoustic
impedance
• Instantaneous Phase: Dependent on the Reflection Strength and
emphasis the continuity of the event. Useful for showing
depositional pattern and discontinuities
• Instantaneous Frequency: First derivative of Instantaneous
Phase. Used to emphasise weak events
Commonly used attributes

• Reflection Strength (Instantaneous Amplitude): used for

identifying bright/dim spots or other lateral changes in lithology,
stratigraphy or fluids
• Coherence: a measure of the similarity of seismic traces. Parts of a
volume with similar traces have high coherence coefficients. Used to
discontinuous have low coefficients. Used to highlight faults and
stratigraphic discontinuities
• Dip, Azimuth: Amount of dip of a horizon and/or the direction of dip.
Enhanced by artificial illumination. Used for structural analysis,
emphasises minor structures, but also channel margins clinoforms etc
• Curvature: is a differential characteristic of a surface; various types
of curvature analysis. Application similar to dip and azimuth
Attributes maps: amplitude

Lobe

Lobe

Channel
Frontal Splay

Amplitude map showing channel, lobes and the associated frontal splay
Attributes maps: coherence/variance

A coherence volume generation from the parent

reflectivity volume
Coherence time slice; faults are clearly visible
(from Bahorich and Famer, 1995
 Parasequences
and
Flooding Surfaces
Parasequences and flooding surfaces: aims

• Introduce parasequences and marine flooding surfaces

• Document characteristics of parasequences
• Document characteristics of marine parasequences
• Investigate controls on formation
• Introduce correlation concepts using marine flooding surfaces and
parasequences
Sequence stratigraphy
• Sequence stratigraphy divides the basin fill into a hierarchy of
genetically-related stratal packages separated by stratal surfaces
which are chronostratigraphically significant

Strata patterns in type 1 deposition sequence in

shelf break setting. (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Parasequences and marine flooding surfaces

• Parasequences definition: a
relatively conformable
succession of genetically-
related beds (bedsets) bounded
by marine flooding surfaces or
their correlative surfaces
• Marine flooding surface
definition: a surface across
which there is evidence of an
abrupt increase in water depth
Parasequences

• Progradational, genetically-related
succession.
• Younger beds deposited in shallower
water (shoal)
• Generally coarsen and thicken
upward
• Metre-scale, up to a few tens of
metres in shallow marine to deltaic
setting
• Best identified in shallow marine
settings
• Difficult to identify in fluvial and
deep marine
• exact character depends on relative
importance of fluvial, wave and tide
processes and environments
Parasequences in well logs
Palaeocene, Wilcox GP

Coarsening up Parasequence
Marine flooding surfaces
• Prominent (regional) surface
across Walther’s Law may be
breakdown
• Abrupt change in bed thickness
and lithology separating deep-
water rocks above from the
shallower-water rocks below
• Planar, with some marine
erosion and locally derived lag
• Evidence of reduction in
sediment accumulation rates
– Early diagenesis
– Faunal colonisation
• Represent time-stratigraphic
markers
Marine flooding surfaces: shallow marine
• Prominent lithology change to
finer-grained, lower energy
facies
• Lag due to shoreface erosion
during transgression
• Omission, colonisation,
commonly change from
softground to firmground
bioturbation
• Organic and inorganic
carbonates, shell beds carbonate
cement
Marine flooding surfaces: coastal plain

• Generally difficult to identify

in non-marine environments
• Studies that have traced
marine flooding surfaces up- Coal
dip into non-marine strata
suggest flooding surfaces
marked by:
• Marine strata overlying non-
marine strata
• Evidence for marine Coal
influence, e.g. marine
bioturbation
• Waterlogged soils
• Low ash coals
Marine flooding surfaces: offshore

• Difficult to identify in
distal, mudstone dominated
strata
– Abrupt decrease in silt-grade
fraction
– Hard- and firm-ground
bioturbation
– Ash bands
– Evident for enhanced early
diagenesis (e.g. cementation
Parasequence sets
• Definition: a succession of genetically-related parasequences
forming a distinctive stacking pattern bounded by major marine
flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces
• Three types of parasequence set
– PROGRADATIONAL
– RETROGRADATIONAL
– AGGRADATIONAL
• Parasequence set boundaries (major marine flooding surfaces)
separate distinctive parasequence set stacking patterns. They
may coincide with sequence boundaries and maximum flooding
surfaces
Progradational parasequence sets
• Successively younger parasequences contain a higher percentage of
rocks deposited in shallower water
• Successively younger parasequences deposited basinward
• Log character becomes “cleaner” upwards with decrease in
percentage of high gamma and serrated character, and increase in
blocky, low gamma character
• Rate of deposition > rate of accommodation

Progradational Stacking patterns-parasequence set (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).

Retrogradational parasequence sets
• Successively younger parasequences contain a higher percentage of
rocks deposited in deeper water
• Successively younger parasequences deposited landward
• Log character becomes “shalier” upwards with overall increase in
high gamma and serrated character, and decrease “clean” blocky,
• Rate of deposition< rate of accommodation

Retrogradational Stacking patterns-parasequence set (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).

Aggradational parasequence sets
• Facies, thickness and sandstone: mudstone ratio similar in all
parasequences
• No marked change overall in log response
• Individual parasequence are progradational
• Rate of deposition ~ rate of accommodation

Aggradational Stacking patterns-parasequence set (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).

Correlation concepts
• Using available core/log data develop a robust facies scheme and
interpret depositional environments
• Identify the main parasequence and parasequence set boundaries
(deepening events) in each well/exposure using Walther,s Law
Correlation concepts
• Hang logs off major marine flooding surfaces
• Identify direction of sediment input and marine flooding
• Correlate flooding surfaces
– Source from basin (marine) direction
– May die out landward and difficult to identify in offshore and coastal plain
 Correlation concepts
• Correlate facies within marine flooding surface framework
• Facies boundaries
• Do not cross marine flooding surfaces
• Should obey Walther’s Law within parasequences
• Facies boundaries should be progradational within individual
parasequences
Lithostratigraphy vs Sequence stratigraphy
System Tracts Overview
Sequence and system tract: introduction

• Impact of relative sea-level change on depositional systems: system

tracts
• Introduction to systems tracts and key bounding surfaces
• Introduction key morphological features and cross-sectional stratal
geometry of systems tracts
• The relationship between systems tracts and a cycle of relative sea-
level change
Sequence and systems tract evolution
Sequence and systems tract evolution
Systems Tract and Key
Surfaces
Systems tracts and key surfaces: Aims

• Document expression of main systems tracts and key bounding

surfaces in different data from proximal to distal portions of clastic
depositional settings

• Focus on key morphological features, cross-sectional stratal

geometry and facies stacking patterns and facies shifts

• Discuss the relationship between systems tracts and surface

development to accommodation and sediment supply
Sequence Resume
• A sequence is a conformable succession of genetically-related strata
bounded by unconformities where there is evidence of subaerial
exposure/erosion that are 3D elements of the basin fill
Systems tracts and key stratal surfaces
• Systems tract are 3D elements of sequences that are defined by
stratal geometries, nature of the bounding surfaces, position within
a sequence, internal parasequence/parasequence set stacking pattern
• Interpreted to be associated with segments of relative sea-level
curves
• Boundaries of systems tracts are key stratal surfaces marked by
major shifts in facies and/or changes in shoreline trajectory and
facies stacking patterns
Systems tracts and key stratal surfaces
• Main systems tracts
– Forced Regression (early lowstand)
– Lowstand
– Transgressive
– Highstand
• Key surfaces
– Regressive surfaces or marine erosion (downshift surface)
– Sequence boundary
– Transgressive surface
– Maximum flooding surfaces
 Systems tract & surfaces: relative fall
• Important elements of contemporaneous erosion and deposition
can occur during relative sea-level fall
– Downcutting of rivers, palaeosols on interfluves
– Forced regression on the shelf and shelf edge deltas
– Redeposition into deeper water as a result of
• Slope collapse
• Bypass of sediments into deep waters via incised valleys, shelf-edges deltas and
slope canyons
Systems tract & surfaces: relative fall
• During falling sea-level, important surfaces and units formed
surfaces
– Regressive surface of marine erosion/downshift surface
– Type 1 sequence boundary
• Stratal Unit (FRST) composed of
– Shoreface forced regressive wedges and/or shelf edge deltas
– Basin floor fans
Type 1 sequence boundary: seismic
• Criteria for identification include:
– Downcutting erosional truncation in topsets and upper slope
– Downward shift in coastal onlap
– Downlap of mounded seismic bodies on basin floor/lower slope
• Need to distinguish coastal vs marine onlap
Type 1 sequence boundary: seismic

Seismic section showing identified sequence boundaries and transgressive surface (Crossline 12291- upper
patches). Transgressive surfaces are denoted by light purple dashed line. Generally shown progradation stacking
pattern, most of the incisions occurred at the shoreline break (s)
Type 1 sequence boundary: shelf break setting

Strata patterns in type 1 deposition sequence in shelf break setting. (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Sequence boundary vs Interfluves Interfluves

Sb , TS and mfs always coincide at interfluves- this is dues to subaerial exposure where the rsl fall below shelf break
Type 1 sequence boundary: wells/outcrop
• In proximal areas comprises incised valley and interfluves
• Criteria for identification for incised valley:
– Subaerial erosional truncation (valley incision)
– Subaerial exposure of marine facies
– Downward shift in facies
– Change in fluvial architecture
Type 1 sequence boundary: wells/outcrop
• Criteria for identification of interfluves:
– Major change in parasequence set stacking pattern
– Subaerial and palaeosol development
• Demonstrate more than one of the criteria exist and they occur on a
regional basis (potential confusion with distributary channel erosion
Forced regression vs normal regression
• Shoreline position migrate basinward as accommodation spaces is
destroyed during relative sea-level fall- forced regression.
Compares to normal regression where A>0, S>A
Lowstand systems tract: overview
• Based marked by up-dip coastal onlap and down-dip downlap.
Sediment still supplied via incised valley
• Top of LST is the Transgressive Surface, a major marine flooding
surface that marks the first turnaround from progradation to
retrogradation
• Main components:
– Channel-levee complex
– Incised valley fills
– Lowstand wedge
Lowstand wedge
• Wedge is restricted basinward of the former shelf-edge break.
Lower boundary downlaps basinward on basin floor and/or channel
levee complexes; onlaps up-dip onto sequence boundary. Upper
boundary marks furthest point of progradation within a sequence,
prior to retrogradation
• Wedge fed and connected up-dip to incised valleys. Internally
wedge is characterised by clinoform progradation
Incised valleys
• Lower bounding surface is squence boundary (Sb) upper bounding
surface variable (depends on timing of fill), commonly caped by
Transgressive Surface (TS)
• Note Sb and Ts coincident on adjacent interfluves
• Valley cut during rsl fall and filled during following rise
(Transgression)
Incised valleys
Transgressive systems tract
• Base of TST is Transgressive Surface; Top is the Maximum
Flooding Surface (furthest landward extent of marine influence).
TST onlaps the sequence boundary in landward direction
• Characterised by landward rising shoreline trajectory and
distinctive stacking pattern- retrogradation parasequence set(s)
accretionary or may be non- accretionary
• Widespread flooding of shelf and up-dip fill of valleys
• Rate of accommodation development exceeds rate of sediment
supply
Transgressive systems tract
• Low shelf gradients, plus trapping of sediment in lagoon, bays etc
result in pronounced landward shift in facies as A>S at onset of
TST
– Transgressive surfaces marked by pronounced landward shift in facies
– condensation on shelf
• Thus on seismic TST generally below seismic resolution or very
thin and show apparent truncation due to distal condensation
Highstand systems tract
• Based of the HST is the Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) –
downlap surface. The HST may be significantly truncated by erosion
• HST sediment downlap on the TST or LST basinward and onlap the
sequence boundary landward
• Characterised by stratigraphically rising and basinward translation
shoreline; comprises one or more aggradational to progradational
parasequence set
• Rate of sediment supply exceeds rate of accommodation development
Highstand systems tract

• Initial highstand parasequence stack in predominantly

aggradational set(s). As the rate of relative sea-level rise and
accommodation development slows, progradation predominated
over aggradation
• Often difficult to clearly distinguish HST and early FRST
Highstand systems tract
• On seismic HST overlies prominent downlap surface (mfs) and is
characterised by sigmoidal to oblique clinoforms in deltaic
settings where water depth is greater that seismic resolution (slope
settings)
• On ramp margins gradient too shallow to image clinoform
Sequence architecture, sea level, systems tracts and
inferred deposition during a complete relative sea
level cycle on passive continental margins (from
Gawthorpe et al., 2000).
Highstand systems tract and Downlap surface

Seismic section (depositional strike line) showing one of the sequence boundaries (Horizon 12- green line) showing
toplap and oblique progradational clinoform geometry of sedimentary package. Maximum flooding surface also showing
the downlap surface.
Condensed section: mfs
• Characterised by low sediment
accumulation rates due to major
landward movement of facies
belts
• On seismic appears as downlap
surface marking renewed
progradation of overlying HST
• On well logs, picked at gamma-
sonic bows (generally
Fluvial architecture during rsl rise
Type 2 sequence boundary
• Interpreted to form where rate of eustatic fall< rate of subsidence at
the depositional shoreline break (i.e. no relative fall at that
position) ; the rsl does not fall below the shelf break
• In practice almost impossible to pick!!!