UNIT3_ PART 1

Dr. S. Poornima
SYLLABUS
 Construction and operation of electrodynamometer
single phase PF meter
 Weston frequency meter
 Phase sequence indicator
 Introduction to electronic Instrumentation & ADC
 True RMS responding voltmeter
 Digital voltmeters (DVM) - Ramp type DVM,
Integrating type DVM, and Successive - approximation
DVM,
 Q-meter,
 Electronic Multi-meter.
E/D POWER FACTOR METER
•The voltmeters/ammeters/wattmeters may not provide
high accuracy, also chances of increment of error is very
high. Therefore this method is not adopted in industrial
world.
•Measurement of power factor accurately is very essential
everywhere.

•Power factor measurement provides us the knowledge of

type of loads that we are using and helps in calculation of
losses happening during the power transmission system and
distribution.
•In power transmission system and distribution system we
measure power factor at every station and electrical
substation using these power factor meters
TYPES OF POWERFACTOR METER
 Electrodynamometer
 SinglePhase Electrodynammeter
 Three Phases Electrodynamometer

 Moving Iron Type Meter

 Rotating Iron Magnetic Field
 Alternating Field
SINGLE PHASE PF METER
•The meter has fixed coil which acts as a
current coil.
•This coil is split into two parts and
carry the current under test.
•The magnetic field of the coil is directly
proportional to the current flow
through the coil.
•The meter has two identical pressure
coils A and B.
• Both the coils are pivoted on the
spindle.
•The pressure coil A has non inductive
resistance connected in series with the
circuit, and the coil B has highly
inductive coil connected in series with
the circuit.
 Torque eqn is similar to Torque eqn. of dynamometer type
instrument
 IA is in phase with V & it moves in a magnetic field
proportional to I, and dM/ dθ (generally constant for radial
field and not constant for parallel field) is proportional to Cos
(90 – θ)
 Similarly IB lags V by 90 and it moves in same field

 TB is proportional to Cos (90 – Φ) i.e. Sin Φ and Cos θ.

 At equilibrium TA = TB

 Thus angular position equals PF angle Scale is calibrated in

terms of PF
 THREE PHASE PF METER

The electrodynamometer is only useful

for the balanced load.
The moving coil is placed at an angle of
120º.
They are connected across different
phases of the supply circuit. Both the
coil has a series resistance.
The voltage across the coil A is V12 and
the current across it IA1.
The circuit of the coil is resistive, and
hence the current and voltage are in
phase with each other.
Similarly, the voltage V13 and the current
IB1 is in phase with each other.
MOVING IRON POWER FACTOR METER
- ROTATING FIELD POWER FACTOR
METER

•The power factor meter has three fixed

coils, and their axes are 120º displaced
from each other.
• The axes are intersecting each other.
•The coils are connected to the three
phase supply with the help of the
current transformer.
•The P is the fixed coil connected in
series with the high resistance circuit
across the phases 2 and 3.
•There is an iron cylinder across coil P.
•The two iron vanes are fixed to the
cylinder.
•The spindles also carry damping vanes
and pointer.
ROTATING FIELD POWER FACTOR METER

•Also called as Westinghouse meter.

•Only works at normal frequency and causes serious errors at other
frequencies
ALTERNATING FIELD TYPE MI PFM
MOVING SYSTEM:
 Q1, Q2, Q3- IRON SECTORS
 Separated at 120° from each other
 Separated from each other on the spindle
by the nonmagnetic pieces denoted as S
 P1, P2,P3- Coils to magnetise iron sectors
 F1, F2- Fixed CURRENT COILS
 When connected in the circuit, the moving
system moves and attains a position such that
mean torque on one of the iron vanes get
neutralized by the torques produced by other
two pieces.
 Deflection is proportional to phase angle
between v & I of the three phase system.
 The voltage coils are at different levels and
hence the resultant flux is not rotating but
alternating.
WESTON FREQUENCY METER
 The Weston frequency meter is a moving iron instrument used
for measuring the unknown frequency of a signal.
 When the frequency of the signal varies from standard
frequency, the current distribution across the coils becomes
changes.
 The Weston frequency meter works on the principle that whenever the
frequency of the measurand signal varies, the distribution of current
between the inductive and the resistive circuit of the meter changes.
 In other words, the change in frequency causes the change in the
inductive impedance of the circuit because of which the variation occurs
in the distribution of current between the parallel paths.
WESTON FREQUENCY METER-
CONSTRUCTION
 The meter consists two coils which are placed
perpendicular to each other.
 The resistor RA is connected in series with the
coil A and the inductor LB is connected in
series with the coil B.
 The inductor LA is connected in parallel with
the coil A and the resistance RB is in parallel
with the coil B.
 The meter has the soft iron pointer and
magnetic needle which are mounted at the
centre of the coils.
 The inductor L is connected in series with the
LA and RB. The L reduces the harmonics
present in circuit current.
 Thereby, reduces the error of the instrument.
• When the supply is given to the Weston
frequency meter, the current starts flowing into
the coil A and B.
• The perpendicular magnetic field set up in the
coils because of the current, depends on the
current passes through the coils.
• The magnetic field of both the coil A and coil B
acts on the soft iron and the magnetic needle.
• The position of the needle depends on the relative
magnitude of the magnetic field acts on it.
• When the supply of normal frequency applies
across the meter,
• The voltage drop of the same magnitude
occurs across the reactance LA and
resistance RB. Hence equal current passes
through the coil A and coil B.
• The meter designs such a way that when the
normal frequency passes through the coil
then the voltage drops across the LA, LB, RA,
and RB remains same.
• Thus, same magnitude current passes
through the coils. In this situation, the
magnetic needle makes an angle of 45°
concerning the coils and the soft iron needle
places at the centre of the scale.
 When the high frequency passes through the
meter, the reactance LA and LB of the coil
increases and the RA and RB remains same.
• The inductance increase the impedance of
the coil A. The impedance means the
opposition offered by the circuit in the
flow of current.
• As the magnitude of current in the coil A
decreases, the field developed also
decreases.
• The more current flows through the coil B
because of the parallel connections with
coil A. The magnetic field develops in the
coil B becomes stronger than the coil A.
• The magnetic needles align themselves
parallel to the axis of the strong magnetic
field, and the pointer deflects towards the
coil B or strong magnetic field.
• When the frequency of the measurand
signal reduces from the normal value, the
opposite action takes place, and the
pointer deflects towards the left.
PHASE SEQUENCE INDICATOR
 The instrument uses for determining the sequence of the
three-phase system is known as the phase sequence indicator.
 The change in the sequence of the power supply changes the
direction of rotation of the machine. Because of which the
entire supply system will be affected.
 For proper connection, it is essential to know the sequence of
the phases which can be done by the use of the phase
sequence indicator.
 The phase sequence indicator is of two types.
 Rotating Type
 Static Type
 INDICATORS

 It show the direction of the phase sequence by rotating the disc

placed at the centre of the instrument. 
 It has three terminals which are connected to the terminals of
the measurand devices.
 The working principle of the rotating phase sequence indicator
is similar to that of the induction motor.
 The coils of the induction motor are star connected.
 The phase sequence of the power supply is RYB. When the
supply is given to the motor coils, rotating magnetic fields
induce in the coils.
 This rotating magnetic field induces the eddy EMF in the
aluminium disc.
 The eddy EMF causes the eddy current in the disc. The
interaction of the eddy current and the rotating magnetic
field produces the torque because of which the disc starts
rotating.
 The direction of the disc shows the phase sequence of the
supply system. 
 If the disc rotates in the clockwise direction, the phase
sequence is RYB. The anticlockwise direction of the
aluminum disc is because of the reverse phase sequence .
 STATIC TYPE PHASE SEQUENCE INDICATOR
 The static phase sequence indicators consist two
lamps and an inductor. The device whose phase
sequence is used to be known is connected to the
static phase sequence indicators.
 If the lamp 1 is dim and the lamp 2 glows brightly,
then the phase sequence of supply is RYB.
 If the lamp 1 glows brightly and the lamp 2 is dim,
the device has reverse phase sequence. 
 The brightness of the lamp depends on the
voltage drops occurs across it.
 The voltage drop across the lamp 1 is 27% of the
lamp 2 = IRr ,
 Also the current IR = 0.27 IY.
 Thereby, the lamp 1 is dim, and lamp 2 glows
brightly.
STATIC TYPE PHASE SEQUENCE INDICATOR
STATIC TYPE PHASE SEQUENCE
INDICATOR
Q-METER
 The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality factor of the
electrical circuit at radio frequencies, such type of device is known as the Q-meter.
 The quality factor is one of the parameters of the oscillatory system, which shows
the relation between the storage and dissipated energy.
 The Q meter measures the quality factor of the circuit which shows the total energy
dissipated by it.
 It also explains the properties of the coil and capacitor. The Q meter uses in a
laboratory for testing the radio frequency of the coils.
 The Q meter works on series resonant. The resonance is the condition exists in the
circuit when their inductance and capacitance reactance are of equal magnitude.
They induce energy which is oscillating between the electric and magnetic field of
the capacitor and inductor respectively.
 The Q-meter is based on the characteristic of the resistance, inductance and
capacitance of the resonant series circuit.
Q METER
 RF oscillator: 50 k- 50 MHz, as a
source delivers a very low current to
Rsh (0.02 Ω).
 Voltage across Rsh is measured by
thermocouple voltmeter.
 Voltage across tuning capacitor is
measured by electronic voltmeter, scale
is calibrated in Q values.
 Unknown coil is connected between T1
and T2.
 The circuit is tuned by setting oscillator
at a given frequency and vary internal
oscillating capacitor and viceversa.
 Q reading on the output meter must be
multiplied by the thermocouple meter
reading to obtain accurate value.
APPLICATIONS OF Q-METER
Applications of Q-meter
APPLICATIONS OF Q-METER
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENTATION & ADC

 Low level signal detection

 Low power consumption

 Less loading effect

 High sensitivity and high input

impedance
 High frequency range

 Improved dynamic range

 High accuracy

 Compactness and portability

TRUE RMS RESPONDING VOLTMETER
 ELECTRONIC MULTI-METER

 The Electronic Multimeter is a device which is used for the measurement of various electrical and
electronic quantities such as current, voltage, resistance etc.
 It is provided with inbuilt power supply necessary for the functioning of the device.
 Any component such as a resistor, battery can be connected to its outer probes for the measurement of the
electronic quantity. 
 The multimeter basically consists of a bridge DC amplifier, rectifier, PMMC meter, function
switch, internal battery and an attenuator. 
 The function of the attenuator is that it helps to select a particular range of voltage values.
 The rectifier is essential in a multimeter for the conversion of AC voltage into DC voltage.
 The internal battery is needed for the operational mechanism of the multimeter.
 The Bridge DC amplifier is nothing but two Field effect transistor connected opposite to each other with
three resistors and forming a bridge-like structure.
 The two resistors are for balancing/ biasing the bridge, and the third resistor is a zero adjust control resistor.
ELECTRONIC MULTI-METER
 The Multimeter performs its operation by providing the input voltage to the gate
terminal of the FET, and this gate voltage is responsible for the increase in the
source voltage of the FET.
 The PMMC meter is connected between the two FET.
 In the ideal condition, no current should flow from PMMC meter so thus it must
show zero deflection, but in the practical implementation, the PMMC meter shows
some deflection. This is undesirable in steady state. Thus a zero adjusts control
resistor is used for adjusting the value of current to zero. After this again, the
PMMC shows no deflection.
 But make sure the above condition is defined when no input is applied to it. When
the input is applied to it either by connecting a resistor or any other component, the
circuit switched to the active state and the changes in the circuit due to the
connection of the component is deflected with the help of PMMC meter.
 There are series of steps which is to be followed while measurement.
 First, the multimeter should be tested whether is it working or not. If it is not working the battery
requirements of the device should be checked.
 Set the knob of the multimeter to the values or quantity which is to be measured.
 For example, if we want to measure resistance then the multimeter should be set to option “ohm”.
MEASUREMENT OF DC VOLTAGE &
CURRENT

 Different ranges of voltages or currents can be obtained with the help of

range selector switch.
MEASUREMENT OF AC VOLTAGE &
RESISTANCE

 One diode converts input AC to  The instrument is short

DC before current passes through circuited and zero
the PMMC meter. adjust control is varied
 The other diode is used for to get zero resistance
protection.  Shunt type ohmmeter.
 DIGITAL VOLTMETER
 Digital Voltmeter displays the voltage readings of a circuit numerically.
 Initially analog voltmeters were used to take the readings of the voltage where in a
pointer or indicator moves across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit and
later, digital voltmeters were introduced which gives the numerical display of voltage
with accuracy. 
 Digital Voltmeter abbreviated as DVM is an instrument used to measure the electrical
potential difference between two points in a circuit.
 The voltage could be an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).

 It measures the input voltage after converting the analog voltage to digital voltage and
displays it in number format using a converter.
Applications of Digital Voltmeter
 Digital Voltmeter is used to know the actual voltage of different components.

 DVM is widely used to check if there is power in the circuit, such as mains outlet.

 Knowing the voltage across a circuit, current can be calculated.

WORKING OF DVM
 The reference of ADC is generated internally and
reference circuit depends upon the type of ADC
technique
 The ADC output is decoded and processed as per
requirement in signal processing unit
 The data transmission element may be latches, counters,
etc as per the application
 The digital display shows the measurement result.

Data
Analog ADC Signal Display
transmission
input processing
element
Reference
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL VOLTMETER
 Digital display of the output eliminates human reading
errors.
 Readings are accurate and fast compared to analog
meters.
 Digital Voltmeter is more stable and reliable.
 Smaller in size and cost-effective.
 DVM can measure both AC and DC voltages.
 Latest DVM are built with micro controllers which
stores the readings for further processing.
 DVM is void of Parallax errors.
 DVMs have automatic range selection.
 DVMs have high input impedance.
DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL VOLTMETER

 Digital Voltmeters are prone to damage if the voltage is increased beyond

the limit.
 The display depends on the external power source or battery.
 While measuring the voltage, there are chances of the digital voltmeter
getting heated up. This might output wrong readings.
 When a fluctuation occurs in a circuit, the digital voltmeter cannot read and
displays an error.
 Speed of operation is limited due to the digitizing circuit in digital
voltmeters.
 It is very hard to spot the transient voltage spikes.
 The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which causes
quantization noise giving rise to errors in measured values.
TYPES OF DIGITAL VOLTMETER

Digital Voltmeter is broadly classified into four types.

Non- Integrating type:
 Ramp Type: Linear & staircase
 Potentiometric type: Successive approximation Digital
Voltmeter
Integrating type:
 Voltage to frequency converter
 Potentiometric type
 Dual slope integrating type
DIGITAL VOLTMETERS (DVM) - SUCCESSIVE
- APPROXIMATION DVM,
LINEAR RAMP DVM
STAIRCASE TYPE DVM
POTENTIOMETRIC INTEGRATING TYPE
DVM
DUAL SLOPE INTEGRATING TYPE DVM
VOLTAGE – FREQUENCY CONVERTER
TYPE DVM
INTERPOLATING INTEGRATING TYPE
DVM
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TECHNIQUES