Biomechanical and Anatomical Concepts

By:
Dr. Murtaza Najabat Ali (Ceng (UK) FIMechE, P.E)

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 The Wrist

• The wrist joint is formed by the bones

of the forearm (radius and ulna bones)
and the eight bones of the wrist.  

• This joint allows the hand to move up

and down, and from side to
side.  However, it does not allow the
hand to twist

• The common movement of turning a

screwdriver is often thought of as
twisting the wrist.  

• However, this twisting actually takes

place at the elbow joint.  Try turning a
screwdriver while holding your forearm Anatomical view of wrist joint
still
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 The Wrist

• The tendons that close

the thumb and fingers
(flexion) pass through an
area in the base of the
wrist called the carpal
tunnel.  

• The word carpal simply

means wrist. 

• The carpal bones form a

small tunnel through
which nine tendons and
the median nerve pass.

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 The Wrist

• Continuous and/or stressful movements of

the wrist or fingers can cause these
tendons to swell (inflame) and place
pressure on the median nerve. 

•  If this pressure is severe or remains for a

long period of time, there is a potential
for damage to the nerve.  

• This pressure on the nerve causes

numbness or tingling in the fingers
similar to the feeling you have when you
wake up after having slept on your hand.  

• The difference is this numbness does not

go away by simply shaking your hand.
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 The Wrist
• While the wrist is capable of a variety of
movements, there is a price to pay for this
flexibility.  

• As the wrist moves from its neutral (straight)

position to a bent position, the following occurs:

1.      Grip strength is reduced because the muscles

must contract to bend the wrist, moving these
muscles out of their ideal range of motion.

2.      Muscle fatigue is increased because muscles

that are contracted are less efficient and therefore
must work harder to provide the same force.

3.      The tendons that pass through the carpal

tunnel are more likely to inflame due to the
additional friction caused by the bending of the
tendon.  This inflammation may place pressure on
the median nerve causing numbness and tingling.
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 The Wrist

Recommendation

• Tasks that require bending the wrist and/or frequent

movement of the fingers can lead to swelling of the
tendons that pass through the carpal tunnel.  

• The result can be pressure on the median nerve leading

to numbness and tingling.  

• Activities that result in numbness or tingling in the hand

should be modified or eliminated.  

• For instance, consider adjusting furniture or equipment

to allow the task to be performed while the wrist is
straight. 

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 The Wrist
Range of motion for the wrist

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 Anatomy and Biomechanics

 In order to understand the origins of human

movement, it is essential to understand Anatomy

 Anatomy provides essential labels for

musculoskeletal structures and joint motions
relevant to human movement

 Knowledge of Anatomy also provides a common

Language of the human body and motions for
Kinesiology and Medical Professionals

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 Anatomy and Biomechanics

 It is an important prerequisite for Kinesiology

professionals trying to improve movement, prevent or
treat injury

 Anatomy is primarily a descriptive field of study and is

not, by itself, enough to explain the function of the
musculoskeletal system in movement

 Knowledge of Anatomy must be combined with

Biomechanics to accurately determine the
musculoskeletal causes or the How human movement is
created 9
Gross (Whole Body) Modeling

 The Figure (right) shows a sketch of the

human frame, where the dots represent
major connecting joints

 The Figure (left) shows the same sketch

with the human frame divided into its
major segments or limbs, the resulting
frame is a Gross model of the human
frame

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Gross (Whole Body) Modeling

 We can further simplify this model by

representing the segments by Ellipsoids
and frustums of Elliptical cones

 for analysis purpose, it is convenient to

number and label the human model
segments

 Also, in Figure (right) ‘R’ represents an

inertial (or Newtonian) reference frame in
the system

 It is always convenient to number or label

‘R’ as body zero
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 Gross (Whole Body) Modeling

 This human frame modelling in

(Figure) is sometimes called
Finite segment modelling

 This model in (Figure) can be

used in Biomechanical analysis
of human kinematics and
dynamics

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 Gross (Whole Body) Modeling

 For example, in injury studies we may be

interested in head/neck motion.

 Figure shows a typical gross-motion model of

head and cervical vertebrae, adjacent
vertebrae can both translate and rotate relative
to one another

 Similarly, Figure (lower) shows a model of

the hand and wrist which is useful for studying
the gross kinematics (or movement) of the
hand and its digits
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 Key Anatomical Concepts

If a Cartesian coordinate system is

placed in the person’s torso it is
common practice to have the X-axis
forward, the Z-axis up, and the Y-axis
to the person’s left

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 Key Anatomical Concepts

These axes define planes which are

also useful in Biomechanics
analysis:
• The X-Y plane called the Transverse or
Horizontal plane, divides the body into upper and
lower parts

• The Y-Z plane called the Frontal or Coronal

plane, divides the body front to rear (anterior to
posterior), and

• The Z-X plane called the Sagittal or Median

plane, divides the body left to right
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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 Anatomy describes the human body relative to

the Anatomical position

 The Anatomical position is approximated in the

Figure (right side)

 The three spatial dimensions of the body

correspond to the three anatomical planes, i.e.

• Frontal
• Sagittal, and
• Transverse
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Key Anatomical Concepts

The major anatomical planes of

motion, and axes of rotation

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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 With the torso being the largest segment of the

human frame, the position and orientation of the
other segments or limbs are usually measured
relative to the torso

 For example, the orientations of the head and neck

are usually measured relative to each other and to the
chest, as opposed to measuring their orientation
relative to coordinate axes fixed in space

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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 Similarly, it is usually more convenient to visualize

and measure the orientations of the limbs relative to
each other, and ultimately relative to the chest, as
opposed to measuring absolute orientation in space

 The centrality of the torso is an intuitive concept.

When people are asked to point themselves, or to
others, they inevitably point to the chest

 The torso defines directions for the body

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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 Moving from the torso toward the head is

usually regarded as upward (or superior) even
if a person is lying down

 Similarly, moving from the torso toward the

feet is downward (or inferior)

 Also, limbs or portions of limbs away from the

torso (such as fingers or toes) are said to be
Distal, whereas portions of limbs close to the
torso (such as shoulders) are said to be
Proximal
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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 Moving forward from the Frontal plane is

said to be the Anterior direction

 The rearward direction is called Posterior

 Similarly, moving away from the mid or

Sagittal plane is said to be Lateral

 Moving toward the Sagittal plane is the

Medial direction, or Medial side of a limb

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 Key Anatomical Concepts
 A Plane of motion is a particular spatial direction
or dimension of motion

 An Axis is an imaginary line about which a body

rotates

 The anatomical axes associated with motion in

each of these planes are the;

• Antero-posterior

• Medio-lateral, and

• Longitudinal axes
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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 Knowing these planes and axes is important to

understand medical descriptions of motion or
movements

 Even more important may be the functional

implications of the orientation of these axes to the
planes of motion they create

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 Key Anatomical Concepts

 For example, note that motion in a

particular plane (i.e. Sagittal) occurs by
rotation about an axis oriented 90O
(Medio-lateral axis) to that plane

 Similarly, a person Supinating their

forearm to illustrate the anatomical
position is creating motion in a
transverse plane about a longitudinal
axis roughly along the forearm

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 Joint Motions

 Anatomy also has specific terminology

describing the major rotations of bones at joints

Flexion Extension
 Perhaps the most frequent of the limb
movements is Bending the arms at the elbows
and the legs at the knees

 Such bending is called Flexion

 Flexion refers to a decrease in joint angle in the Extension

Flexion
Sagittal plane

 Alternatively, straightening the arms or legs is

called Extension 25
 Joint Motions

 In general, bending of any limb or body part is called Flexion

Flexion
and the straightening is called Extension

 The concepts of Flexion and Extension are especially

important in studying head and neck movement and injury

 Bending the head forward, chin to chest, is Flexion while

Bending the head rearward is called Extension

 The chest restricts the Flexion but there is no comparable

restriction to the Extension
Extension

 Therefore, Extension is generally more harmful than Flexion

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 Joint Motions

 The term Extension can be misleading in that, in structural

mechanics, extension refers to elongation, the opposite of
shortening or compression

 In body movement (kinesiology), however, Extension is

simply straightening , the opposite of Flexion

 With neck Extension there may be either elongation or

shortening of the neck

 Similarly, motion into the extremes of the range of motion are

often noted as “hyper”, as in Hyperextension
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 Joint Motions
 Motion of a segment away from the midline in the Frontal
plane is Abduction
OR
 When the legs are separated or spread apart, the movement is
called Abduction

 While movement back toward the midline is called

Adduction, OR when the legs are brought together, as in
clicking one’s heels, the movement is called Adduction
(adding together)

 Joint motions in the transverse plane are usually called

Inward Rotation (rotation of the anterior aspect of the
segment toward the midline) and Outward Rotation
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Joint Motions

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 Joint Motions

 Some specific movements of the arms and legs

are also of interest

 When the forearm is rotated so that the palm of

the hand faces downward it is called Pronation,
which refers to internal rotation of the forearm at
the radioulnar joint or Horizontal Adduction
(which is drawing the shoulder toward the
midline in a transverse plane)

 Similarly, rotation of the forearm so that the palm

faces upward is called Supination
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 Joint Motions

 In case of normal running the foot strikes the

ground on the lateral aspect of the foot; the
combined anatomical actions of Eversion (when
the soles of a person’s feet are rotated outward),
Plantar Flexion and Abduction in the first part of
stance is called Pronation
Frontal plane view of rear-foot motion
in the first half of the stance phase of
 This Pronation serves to absorb the shock of the running. The foot lands in a supinated
position. The motion of the foot and
collision of the foot with the ground ankle to accommodate to the surface and
absorb shock is called Pronation

 The opposite motion (Supination) stiffens the

foot for the push off phase of stance

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 Joint Motions

 When a person’s legs are together more at

the knees than at the feet (as in being
knock-kneed), the position is called Varus

 When a person’s legs are spread apart at

the knees, more than at the feet (as in
being bowlegged), the position is called
Valgus

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Joint Motions

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