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ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY OF MOVEMENT

Anatomical terms of movement are used to describe the actions of muscles upon the skeleton. Muscles
contract to produce movement at joints, and the subsequent movements can be precisely described
using this terminology.

The terms used assume that the body begins in the anatomical position. Most movements have an
opposite movement – also known as an antagonistic movement. We have described the terms in
antagonistic pairs for ease of understanding.
Flexion and Extension
Flexion and extension are movements that occur in the sagittal plane. They refer to increasing and
decreasing the angle between two body parts:

Flexion refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts. Flexion at the elbow is
decreasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. When the knee flexes, the ankle moves closer
to the buttock, and the angle between the femur and tibia gets smaller.

Extension refers to a movement that increases the angle between two body parts. Extension at the
elbow is increasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. Extension of the knee straightens the
lower limb.

Abduction and Adduction

Abduction and adduction are two terms that are used to describe movements towards or away from the
midline of the body.
Abduction is a movement away from the midline – just as abducting someone is to take them away. For
example, abduction of the shoulder raises the arms out to the sides of the body.
Adduction is a movement towards the midline. Adduction of the hip squeezes the legs together.
In fingers and toes, the midline used is not the midline of the body, but of the hand and foot
respectively. Therefore, abducting the fingers spreads them out.
Medial and Lateral Rotation
Medial and lateral rotation describe movement of the limbs around their long axis:

Medial rotation is a rotational movement towards the midline. It is sometimes referred to as internal
rotation. To understand this, we have two scenarios to imagine. Firstly, with a straight leg, rotate it to
point the toes inward. This is medial rotation of the hip. Secondly, imagine you are carrying a tea tray in
front of you, with elbow at 90 degrees. Now rotate the arm, bringing your hand towards your opposite
hip (elbow still at 90 degrees). This is internal rotation of the shoulder.

Lateral rotation is a rotating movement away from the midline. This is in the opposite direction to the
movements described above.
Elevation and Depression
Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction (e.g. shoulder shrug), depression refers to
movement in an inferior direction.

Pronation and Supination

This is easily confused with medial and lateral rotation, but the difference is subtle. With your hand
resting on a table in front of you, and keeping your shoulder and elbow still, turn your hand onto its
back, palm up. This is the supine position, and so this movement is supination.
Again, keeping the elbow and shoulder still, flip your hand onto its front, palm down. This is the prone
position, and so this movement is named pronation.
These terms also apply to the whole body – when lying flat on the back, the body is supine. When lying
flat on the front, the body is prone.
Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion are terms used to describe movements at the ankle. They refer to the
two surfaces of the foot; the dorsum (superior surface) and the plantar surface (the sole).
Dorsiflexion refers to flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly. Dorsiflexion of the
hand is a confusing term, and so is rarely used. The dorsum of the hand is the posterior surface, and so
movement in that direction is extension. Therefore we can say that dorsiflexion of the wrist is the same
as extension.
Plantarflexion refers extension at the ankle, so that the foot points inferiorly. Similarly there is a term for
the hand, which is palmarflexion.

Inversion and Eversion

Inversion and eversion are movements which occur at the ankle joint, referring to the rotation of the
foot around its long axis.
Inversion involves the movement of the sole towards the median plane – so that the sole faces in a
medial direction.
Eversion involves the movement of the sole away from the median plane – so that the sole faces in a
lateral direction.

Opposition and Reposition

A pair of movements that are limited to humans and some great apes, these terms apply to the
additional movements that the hand and thumb can perform in these species.
Opposition brings the thumb and little finger together.
Reposition is a movement that moves the thumb and the little finger away from each other, effectively
reversing opposition

Circumduction
Circumduction can be defined as a conical movement of a limb extending from the joint at which the
movement is controlled.

It is sometimes talked about as a circular motion, but is more accurately conical due to the ‘cone’ formed
by the moving limb.
Protraction and Retraction
Protraction describes the anterolateral movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall that allows the
shoulder to move anteriorly. In practice, this is the movement of ‘reaching out’ to something.
Retraction refers to the posteromedial movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall, which causes the

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shoulder region to move posteriorly i.e. picking something up

Components of the Musculoskeletal System

What is the musculoskeletal system?
Essential components of the musculoskeletal system: bones, muscles and joints
The musculoskeletal system, also known as the locomotor system, is a set of organs
that include the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, ligaments and other connective
tissues. They work together providing shape, heat, protection and support to vital
organs, as well as stability and movement to the body.
The musculoskeletal system is essential to maintain homeostasis from a mechanical,
synthetic and metabolic point of view. To understand the importance of this
system, it is necessary to look at each essential component individually: bones,
muscles and joints.
The bones
The human skeleton contains approximately 206 bones, this number is higher in
newborns and young children since they are born with some separate bones to
facilitate an easier exit through the birth canal.
With adults, the highest concentration of bones is in the extremities, the upper
being a total of 64 bones and the lower ones of 62. The head is formed by 28
bones and the trunk by 52.
Bone is formed by a calcified and porous connective tissue and is composed of a
collagen matrix, providing flexibility, and an inorganic reservoir composed of
mineral salts, mainly hydroxyapatite. The bone is a dynamic organ that constantly
remodels itself and changes its shape adapting to the continuous pressures to
which it is subjected.
Although its main function is to support and protect internal organs, bones also
produce blood cells. Therefore, bone functions include mechanical (support and
structure, protection and movement), synthetic (hematopoiesis) and metabolic (fat
and mineral storage, and acid-base balance) functions.
The muscles
The exact number of muscles in the human body is unknown since the scientific
community still does not agree with the definition of what a muscle is. Most
experts suggest that there are a total of 639 to 650 muscles within the muscular
system, which are found as a network of fibers and tissues. While the exact
number is a dispute, what all scientists do agree on is that there are different
types: striated, smooth and cardiac.
Muscles are soft and contractile tissues made of muscle cells (also called fibers),
which in response to signals transmitted by nerves are capable of producing
movement. The smooth and cardiac musculature play an essential role in
homeostasis, but are not involved in the musculoskeletal system, so just skeletal
musculature will be explained in detail.
Voluntary musculature, also called skeletal musculature, controls conscious
movement. It gives the body its shape and is made up of striated muscle fibers.
The muscles are linked to the bones thanks to the tendons, resulting in a system of
levers used to give rise to movement and maintenance of body posture. As for the
structure, the muscle is covered by a layer of connective tissue that protects it
from friction with other muscles and bones. This layer continues, along with other
connective tissues, until the tendons form.
The muscular system performs essential functions in the body with a mechanical
and metabolic role.
Joints
We have 360 joints in our body. Some of these joints are vital to carry out our
daily life, others are not so much and some of them may practically not exist
because they have no function.
These 360 joints are scattered throughout the body, 86 are in the skull, 6 in the
throat, 66 in the chest, 76 in the spine and in the pelvis, 32 in each of the upper
limbs and 31 in each of the lower extremities.
The joints have an important role to give mobility to the human body, but they are
also growth points. Some joints, such as the skull, only serve to protect the brain
and have virtually no mobility.
The immobile joints are held together by bone growth or by a resistant cartilage.
They can also be joined by cartilages that allow for little movement, such as the
nose.
A joint is where two or more bones meet in order to allow movement and provide
mechanical support. With two main functions, give structural support to the
organism and allow movement when the surrounding muscles contract. There are a
number of important vitamins to keep our musculoskeletal system in perfect
condition.
Taking care of the joints is vital for body´s well-being.
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What are the Main Functions of the Muscular System?
Muscles allow a person to move, speak, and chew. They control heartbeat, breathing, and
digestion. Other seemingly unrelated functions, including temperature regulation and vision,
also rely on the muscular system.
Keep reading to discover much more about the muscular system and how it controls the body.
How the muscular system works
The muscles account for around 40 percent of a person’s weight with the largest muscle in the
body being the gluteus maximus in the buttocks.
The muscular system contains more than 600 muscles that work together to enable the full
functioning of the body.
There are 3 types of muscles in the body:
Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously controlled. They are attached to
bones, and contracting the muscles causes movement of those bones.
Any action that a person consciously undertakes involves the use of skeletal muscles. Examples
of such activities include running, chewing, and writing.
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle lines the inside of blood vessels and organs, such as the stomach, and is also
known as visceral muscle.
It is the weakest type of muscle but has an essential role in moving food along the digestive
tract and maintaining blood circulation through the blood vessels.
Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be consciously controlled.
Cardiac muscle
Located only in the heart, cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body. Cardiac muscle
stimulates its own contractions that form our heartbeat. Signals from the nervous system
control the rate of contraction. This type of muscle is strong and acts involuntarily.
Eleven main functions of the muscular system
The main functions of the muscular system are as follows:
1. Mobility
The muscular system’s main function is to allow movement. When muscles contract, they
contribute to gross and fine movement.
Gross movement refers to large, coordinated motions and includes:
• walking
 • running
• swimming
Fine movement involves smaller movements, such as:
• writing
• speaking
• facial expressions
The smaller skeletal muscles are usually responsible for this type of action.
Most muscle movement of the body is under conscious control. However, some movements are
reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand from a source of heat.
2. Stability
Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability. Muscle tendons in the knee
joint and the shoulder joint are crucial in stabilization.
The core muscles are those in the abdomen, back, and pelvis, and they also stabilize the body
and assist in tasks, such as lifting weights.
3. Posture
Skeletal muscles help keep the body in the correct position when someone is sitting or standing.
This is known as posture.
Good posture relies on strong, flexible muscles. Stiff, weak, or tight muscles contribute to poor
posture and misalignment of the body.
Long-term, bad posture leads to joint and muscle pain in the shoulders, back, neck, and
elsewhere.
4. Circulation
The heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The movement of the heart is
outside of conscious control, and it contracts automatically when stimulated by electrical
signals.
Smooth muscle in the arteries and veins plays a further role in the circulation of blood around
the body. These muscles maintain blood pressure and circulation in the event of blood loss
or dehydration.
They expand to increase blood flow during times of intense exercise when the body requires
more oxygen.
5. Respiration
Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the diaphragm
contracts, it pushes downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill with air.
When the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushes air out of the lungs.
When someone wants to breath more deeply, it requires help from other muscles, including
those in the abdomen, back, and neck.
6. Digestion
The muscular system allows for movement within the body, for example, during digestion or
urination.
Smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal or GI tract control digestion. The GI tract stretches from
the mouth to the anus.
Food moves through the digestive system with a wave-like motion called peristalsis. Muscles in
the walls of the hollow organs contract and relax to cause this movement, which pushes food
through the esophagus into the stomach.
The upper muscle in the stomach relaxes to allow food to enter, while the lower muscles mix
food particles with stomach acid and enzymes.
The digested food moves from the stomach to the intestines by peristalsis. From here, more
muscles contract to pass the food out of the body as stool.
7. Urination
The urinary system comprises both smooth and skeletal muscles, including those in the:
• bladder
• kidneys
• penis or vagina
• prostate
• ureters
• urethra
The muscles and nerves must work together to hold and release urine from the bladder.
Urinary problems, such as poor bladder control or retention of urine, are caused by damage to
the nerves that carry signals to the muscles.

8. Childbirth
Smooth muscles in the uterus expand and contract during childbirth. These movements push
the baby through the vagina. Also, the pelvic floor muscles help to guide the baby’s head down
the birth canal.
9. Vision
Six skeletal muscles around the eye control its movements. These muscles work quickly and
precisely, and allow the eye to:
• maintain a stable image
• scan the surrounding area
• track moving objects
If someone experiences damage to their eye muscles, it can impair their vision.
10. Organ protection
Muscles in the torso protect the internal organs at the front, sides, and back of the body. The
bones of the spine and the ribs provide further protection.
Muscles also protect the bones and organs by absorbing shock and reducing friction in the
joints.
11. Temperature regulation
Maintaining normal body temperature is an important function of the muscular system.
Almost 85 percent of the heat a person generates in their body comes from contracting
muscles.
When body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal muscles increase their activity to make
heat. Shivering is one example of this mechanism. Muscles in the blood vessels also contract to
maintain body heat.
Body temperature can be brought back within normal range through the relaxation of smooth
muscle in the blood vessels. This action increases blood flow and releases excess heat through
the skin.
Five fun facts about the muscular system
• Muscles make up approximately 40 percent of total weight.
• The heart is the hardest-working muscle in the body. It pumps 5 quarts of blood per
minute and 2,000 gallons daily.
• The gluteus maximus is the body’s largest muscle. It is in the buttocks and helps humans
maintain an upright posture.
• The ear contains the smallest muscles in the body alongside the smallest bones. These
muscles hold the inner ear together and are connected to the eardrum.
• A muscle called the masseter in the jaw is the strongest muscle by weight. It allows the
teeth to close with a force of up to 55 pounds on the incisors or 200 pounds on the
molars.

Where does anatomy end and biomechanics begin? In truth, there is no answer
because the question itself is not valid. One might as well ask, “Where does the
study of
words end and the writing of compositions (or articles, or books) begin?” or “Where
does the study of building materials end and the designing and erecting of buildings
begin?” Just as words are the elements used in all writing, whether creative,
factual, or
expository, and just as bricks, wood, cement, metal, and glass are some of the
elements used in building, so bones, joints, muscles, connective tissue, blood
vessels,
and nerves are the vital elements of human motion. They are the essential elements
used in batting a baseball, passing and carrying a football, shooting a basketball
into the
basket—in fact, in all running, walking, jumping, throwing, striking, catching, and
swimming; likewise, one finds them in keyboarding, manual labor, painting, sewing,
knitting, and so forth, almost without end.
One aim of this is to prepare students of human motion, whether they are in
physical
education, athletic training, physical therapy, occupational therapy, exercise
science, or
other related professions, to systematically analyze human movements in terms of
muscles, joints, and nervous system integration and to apply the knowledge
provided to
improve performance in motor skills. This section should not be looked upon merely
as
a review of anatomy but as the very foundation for analysis of human motion. It
demonstrates the close relationships between anatomical structure and function,
and it
provides a body of knowledge that can be utilized in learning and perfecting various
motor skills. It aims to demonstrate how the bones, joints, and muscles serve as
elements in anatomical levers, which act in accord with the laws of mechanics. It
also
strives to make clear the influences of gravitational and other external forces on
muscular actions. For instance, under certain circumstances, these forces may
cause

an action to be the exact opposite of what one would expect in view of the
movement
that is being performed. It should be obvious, therefore, that memorizing the
actions of
muscles will not prepare the student to make accurate analyses. Rather, a true
understanding of all the conditions that influence the functions of the muscles is
necessary
What Is Anatomy and Physiology?
Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts.
Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole.
Some
specializations within each of these sciences follow:
 Gross (macroscopic) anatomy is the study of body parts visible to the
naked eye, such as the heart or bones.
 Histology is the study of tissues at the microscopic level.
 Cytology is the study of cells at the microscopic level.
 Neurophysiology is the study of how the nervous system functions.
ORGANIZATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS
Living systems can be defined from various perspectives, from the broad
(looking at the entire earth) to the minute (individual atoms). Each
perspective provides information about how or why a living system
functions:
 At the chemical level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and
the chemical bonds between atoms provide the framework upon which
all living activity is based.
 The cell is the smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are
specialized bodies performing specific cellular functions. Cells
themselves may be specialized. Thus, there are nerve cells, bone cells,
and muscle cells.
 A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function.
Muscle tissue, for example, consists of muscle cells.
 An organ is a group of different kinds of tissues working together to
perform a particular activity. The heart is an organ composed of
muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissues.
 An organ system is two or more organs working together to accomplish
a particular task. The digestive system, for example, involves the
coordinated activities of many organs, including the mouth, stomach,
small and large intestines, pancreas, and liver.

 An organism is a system possessing the characteristics of living

things—the ability to obtain and process energy, the ability to respond
to environmental changes, and the ability to reproduce.
Homeostasis
A characteristic of all living systems is homeostasis, or the maintenance of
stable, internal conditions within specific limits. In many cases, stable
conditions are maintained by negative feedback.
In negative feedback, a sensing mechanism (a receptor) detects a change in
conditions beyond specific limits. A control center, or integrator (often the
brain), evaluates the change and activates a second mechanism (an effector)
to correct the condition; for example, cells that either remove or add glucose
to the blood in an effort to maintain homeostasis are effectors. Conditions
are constantly monitored by receptors and evaluated by the control center.
When the control center determines that conditions have returned to normal,
corrective action is discontinued. Thus, in negative feedback, the variant
condition is canceled, or negated, so that conditions are returned to normal.
The regulation of glucose concentration in the blood illustrates how
homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. After a meal, the
absorption of glucose (a sugar) from the digestive tract increases the
amount of glucose in the blood. In response, specialized cells in the
pancreas (alpha cells) secrete the hormone insulin, which circulates through
the blood and stimulates liver and muscle cells to absorb the glucose. Once
blood glucose levels return to normal, insulin secretion stops. Later, perhaps
after heavy exercise, blood glucose levels may drop because muscle cells
absorb glucose from the blood and use it as a source of energy for muscle
contraction. In response to falling blood glucose levels, another group of
specialized pancreatic cells (beta cells) secretes a second hormone,
glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver to release its stored glucose into the
blood. When blood glucose levels return to normal, glucagon secretion stops.
Anatomic Terminology
In order to accurately identify areas of the body, clearly defined anatomical
terms are used. These terms refer to the body in the anatomical
position—standing erect, facing forward, arms down at the side, with the
palms turned forward. In this position, the following apply:

 Directional terms are used to describe the relative position of one body
part to another. These terms are listed in Table 1.
 Body planes and sections are used to describe how the body or an
organ is divided into two parts:
o Sagittal planes divide a body or organ vertically into right and left
parts. If the right and left parts are equal, the plane is a
midsagittal plane; if they're unequal, the plane is a parasagittal
plane.
o A frontal (coronal) plane divides the body or organ vertically into
front (anterior) and rear (posterior) parts.
o A horizontal (transverse) plane divides the body or organ
horizontally into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) parts. This
is also known as a cross‐section.

 Body cavities are enclosed areas that house organs. These cavities are
organized into two groups:
 The posterior/dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity (which
contains the brain) and the vertebral cavity (which contains the spinal
cord).
 The anterior/ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity (which
contains the lungs, each in its own pleural cavity, and the heart, in the
pericardial cavity) and the abdominopelvic cavity (which contains the
digestive organs in the abdominal cavity and the bladder and
reproductive organs in the pelvic cavity).
 Regional terms identify specific areas of the body. In some cases, a
descriptive word is used to identify the location. For example, the axial
region refers to the main axis of the body—the head, neck, and trunk.
The appendicular region refers to the appendages—the arms and legs.
Other regional terms use a body part to identify a particular region of
the body. For example, the nasal region refers to the nose.