Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SYSTEM
LEADER: Mary Angel Canas
MEMBERS: Maria Krissabelle Abanes
Clarisse S. Caballero
Ralph Lorence Cabilao
Erma Mae Cabrera
Pia Isabelle Cartin
Jezy Byle S. Jayme
Graizyle Fern Ranara
Raiza Abegail Roxas
Christine Lyn Sayson
Muscle Origin
➢ refers to a muscle's proximal attachment—the end of the muscle closest to the torso.
For example, the bicep muscle's origin is located at the shoulder.
Insertion of a Muscle
➢ defined as the place where one end of a muscle is attached to the freely moving bone
of its joint. Example Muscle insertion refers to a muscle's distal attachment—the end
of the muscle furthest away from the torso. For example, the bicep insertion occurs
at the elbow.
Antagonistic muscle
➢ pair as one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. The muscle that
is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is
called the antagonist. Example of antagonistic muscles are the biceps and the triceps.
As the agonist muscle contracts, the antagonist relaxes, helping to manage and
regulate the movement of the former.
Synergist Muscles
➢ act around a moveable joint to produce motion similar to or in concert with agonist
muscles. They often act to reduce excessive force generated by the agonist muscle
and are referred to as neutralizers. For example, iliacus, psoas major, and rectus
femoris all can act to flex the hip joint.
Fixator Muscle
➢ serves as a stabilizer of one part of the body during movement of another part. It
allows the agonist muscle to work effectively by stabilizing the origin of the agonist
muscle so that the latter can pull against the bone without it moving thereby achieve
an effective contraction. For example, The abdominals can act as fixators to stabilize
the body for hip and knee movements.
➢ Origin is where it starts from, insertion is where it ends. The "origin" indicates the
position on the skeletal structure where the muscle is fixed and does not move. The
origin of a muscle is the point on a bone where it is said to 'start' as a rule, the origin
tends to be higher up, or closer to the midline than the insertion.
➢ The "insertion" is where it connects to the moving part of the skeleton. For the
upper arm, the origin is near the shoulder, and the insertions are in the large bones
of the forearm, the radius and the ulna. The insertion is where the muscle attaches to
another bone further down, or further from the midline.
The origin muscle is usually proximal to the body and does not move during
contraction. The clavicle and sternum are examples of muscle origin. Introductory muscles
are usually distal to the body and move bones and joints when contracted. The humerus is
an example of muscle insertion.
❖ Fixator- Stabilize the action of the prime movers. It stabilizes the origin of the
agonist and the joint that it spans (moving), helping the agonist to function most
effectively and allowing the agonist to achieve maximum and effective contractions.
For the biceps curl, these are the rotator cuff muscles, the "protectors of the shoulder
joint". The fixation muscles become tense, but they are unable to move. Acts to
eliminate unwanted movement of the agonist or prime mover origin. Many muscles
attach to multiple bones. When this happens, it is called a polyarticular or
polyarticular muscle.
PARALLEL
➢ have fascicles that are organized parallel
to the long axis of the muscle, but they
terminate on a flat tendon that spans the
width of the entire muscle. As a
consequence, parallel muscles can
shorten to a large degree because the
fascicles are in a direct line with the
tendon; however, they contract with less
force because fewer total fascicles
are attached to the tendon.
Examples:
Trapezius, Rhomboideus, Rectus abdominis
PENNATE MUSCLE
➢ have fascicles that emerge like the barbs
on a feather from a common tendon that
runs the length of the entire muscle. The
location of the fascicles relative to the
tendon is the basis for different types of
pennate muscles. In unipennate muscles,
the fascicles are on one side of the
tendon. Bipennate muscles have fascicles
arranged on two sides of the tendon.
Multipennate muscles are those with
fascicles arranged at many places around the central tendon. The long tendons of
pennate muscles can extend for some distance between a muscle belly and its
insertion. The pennate arrangement allows a large number of fascicles to attach to
a single tendon, with the force of contraction concentrated at the tendon. The
muscles that extend the knee are multipennate muscles.
Examples:
Palmar interosseus, Semimembranosus, Rectus femoris, Deltoid
4. Number of origins
• Biceps
• Triceps
• Quadriceps
Both contracting
together: flex
neck
Scalene muscles C2-C6 first and second Cervical and Flex, laterally
ribs brachial plexuses flex, and rotate
neck
MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION
Muscle Origin Insertion Nerve Action
Auricularis
Anterior Aponeurosis over Cartilage of Facial Draws auricle superiorly
head auricle and anteriorly
Draws auricle
Posterior Mastoid Process Posterior root of Facial posteriorly
auricle
Draws auricle superiorly
Superior Aponeurosis over Cartilage of Facial and posteriorly
head auricle
Buccinator Mandible and Orbicularis at Facial Retracts angle of mouth,
maxilla angle of mouth flattens, cheek
Corrugator Nasal bridge and Skin of eyebrow Facial Depresses medial
supercilii orbicularis oculi portion of eyebrow;
draws eyebrows
together, as in frowning
Depressor anguli Lower border of Skin of lip near Facial Depresses angle of
oris mandible angle of mouth mouth
Depressor labii Lower border of Skin of lower lip Facial Depresses lower lip
inferioris mandible and orbicularis
oris
Levator anguli oris Maxilla Skin at angle of Facial Elevates angle of mouth
mouth and
orbicularis oris
Levator labii Maxilla Skin and and Facial Elevates upper lip
superioris orbicularis oris of
upper lip
Levator labiin Maxilla Ala at nose and Facial Elevates ala of nose and
superioris alaeque upper lip upper lip
nasi
Levator palpebrae Lesser wing of Skin of eyelid Oculomotor Elevates upper eyelid
superioris sphenoid
Mentalis Mandible Skin of chin Facial Elevates and wrinkles
skin over chin;
protrudes lower lip
Nasalis Maxilla Bridge and ala of Facial Dilates nostril
nose
Occipitofrontalis Occipital bone Skin of eyebrow Facial Moves scalp; elevates
and nose eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi Maxilla and Circles orbit and Facial Closes eye
frontal bones inserts near origin
Orbicularis oris Nasal septum, Fascia and other Facial Closes lips
maxilla and muscles of lips
mandible
Platysma Fascia of deltoid Skin over inferior Facial Depresses lower lip,
and pectoralis border of wrinkles skin of neck
major mandible and upper chest
Procerus Bridge of nose Frontalis Facial Creates horizontal
wrinkles between eyes,
as in frowning
Risorius Platysma and Orbicularis oris Facial Abducts angle of mouth
masseter fascia and skin at corner
of mouth
Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Angle of mouth Facial Elevates and abducts
major upper lip
Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Orbicularis oris of Facial Elevates and abducts
minor upper lip upper lip
Erector Spinae:
• Iliocostalis - it is the lateral division of the sacrospinalis muscle that helps to keep
the trunk erect. The action of iliocostalis is to extend the vertebral column.
• Cervicis - The origin of the cervicis are sacrum, ilium, and lumbar spines. The action
of the cervicis is to extend, laterally flex, and rotate the vertebral column.
• Thoracis - It is the middle section of the spine. It starts at the base of the neck and
ends at the bottom of your ribs. It extends, laterally flexes, and rotates the vertebral
column.
• Lumborum - Is a muscle of the posterior abdominal wall lying deep inside the
abdomen and dorsal to the iliopsoas. It extends, laterally flexes, and rotates the
vertebral column.
Longissimus
• Longissimus Capitis - it is a part of the longest muscle of the neck. It acts to extend
the head.
• Longissimus Cervicis - it is the middle portion of the muscle located between
longissimus capitis and longissimus thoracis. Its action is to extend the neck.
• Longissimus Thoracis - it is a long intrinsic muscle of the back, it is also the largest
of the erector spinae muscles. It extends the vertebral column.
Spinalis:
• Spinalis Cervicis - it is an inconsistent muscle that arises especially from the spinous
processes of the lower cervical and upper thoracic vertebrae and inserts especially
into the spinous process of the axis. It extends the neck.
• Spinalis Thoracis - Is the thoracic part of the spinalis muscles that attaches to
thoracic vertebral spinous processes and continues forward as spinalis cervicis. The
action of spinalis thoracis is to extend the vertebral column.
• Semispinalis Cervicis - It is a muscle of the back, this muscle belongs to the
spinotransverse group of deep back muscles. It extends the neck.
Semispinalis
• Semispinalis Thoracis - It is a thin, fleshy fascicle with long tendons at either end,
it also covers the thoracic multifidus muscle. It extends the vertebral column.
• Splenius cervicis - It is a flat narrow muscle on each side of the back of the neck and
the upper thoracic region that arises from the spinous processes of the third and to
sixth thoracic vertebrae. It rotates and extends the neck.
• Longus colli - It is a weak flexor of the cervical spine. It consists of upper (superior
oblique), lower (inferior oblique), and central (vertical or intermediate) fibers. It
flexes the neck.
Deep:
• Interspinales - It is any of various short muscles that have their origin on the superior
surface of the spinous process of one vertebra. It extends the back and the neck.
• Intertransversarii - Are small muscles of the back found between contiguous
transverse processes of the cervical, lumbar, and some thoracic vertebrae. It laterally
flexes the vertebral column.
• eMultifidus - A muscle of the fifth and deepest layer of the back filling up the groove
on each side of the spinous processes of the vertebrae from the sacrum to the skull
and consisting of many fasciculi that pass upward and inward to the spinous
processes and help to erect and rotate the spine. It extends and rotates the vertebral
column.
• Psoas minor - It is a long fusiform muscle on either side of the vertebral column and
the brim of the lesser pelvis. It flexes the vertebral column.
• Rotatores - To move the spine and back in several different directions, including a
forward bend. It extends and rotates the vertebral column.
MUSCLE ACTION
Diaphragm Inhalation depresses floor of thorax
Intercostalis
External Quiet inhalation elevates ribs
Internal Forced exhalation depresses ribs
Scalenus
Anterior Elevates first rib
Medial Elevates first rib
Posterior Elevates second rib
Serratus Posterior
Inferior (not illustrated) Depresses inferior ribs and extends
vertebral column
Superior (not illustrated) Elevates superior ribs
Rectus abdominis Slung between the ribs and the pubic bone
at the front of the pelvis. When
contracting, this muscle has the
characteristic bumps or bulges that are
commonly called “the six pack”. The main
function of the rectus abdominis is to
move the body between the ribcage and
the pelvis.
Internal abdominal oblique These flank the rectus abdominis and are
located just inside the hip bones. They
operate in the opposite way to the external
oblique muscles. For example, twisting the
trunk to the left requires the left side
internal oblique and the right-side external
oblique to contract together.
SHOULDER MUSCLES
➢ Levator scapulte
• located under the pectoralis major
• Elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula; laterally flexes neck
➢ Pectoralis minor
• located under the pectoralis major, and both form the anterior wall of the
axilla
• Depresses scapula or elevates ribs
➢ Rhomboid major
• originates from the spinous processes of the second to second to fifth
thoracic vertebrae
• Retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula.
➢ Rhomboid minor
• on the back that connects the scapula with the vertebrae of the spinal column
• Retracts, slightly elevates. rotates, and fixes.
➢ Serratus anterior
• located on each side of the chest.
• Rotates and protracts scapula; elevates rib
➢ Subclavius
• underneath the clavicle
• Fixes clavicle or elevates first ribs
➢ Trapezius
• from the external protuberance of the occipital bone to the lower thoracic
vertebrae and laterally to the spine of the scapula.
• Elevates, depresses, retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula; extends neck.
ARM MUSCLES
➢ Coracobrachialis
• located in the anterior, upper compartment of the arm
• Adducts arm and flexes shoulder
➢ Deltoid
• located in our shoulder
• Flexes and extends shoulder, abducts and medially and laterally rotates arm
➢ Latissimus dorsi
• found superficially in the lower two-thirds of the trunk
• Adducts and medially rotates arm; extends shoulder
➢ Pectoralis Major
• lies underneath the breast tissue and forms the anterior wall of the axilla
• Flexes shoulder, adducts and medially rotates arm; extends shoulder from
flexed position
➢ Teres Major
• part of the upper arm and works together with the Latissimus Dorsi to create
certain movements.
• Extends shoulder, adducts and medially rotates arm
ROTATOR CUFF
➢ Infraspinatus
• located at the back of your shoulder.
• Laterally rotates arm; holds head of humerus in place
➢ Subscapularis
• originates at the subscapular fossa and inserts into the lesser tubercle of the
humerus
• Medially rotates arm; holds head of humerus in place
➢ Supraspinatus
• resides in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula, superior to the scapular
spine
• Abducts arm; holds head of humerus in place
➢ Teres minor
• arises from the posterior surface of the scapula, directly adjacent to the upper
part of its lateral border.
• Laterally rotates and adducts arm; holds head of humerus in place
MUSCLES AND MOVEMENTS OF THE FOREARM, WRIST, HAND, AND
FINGERS
ANTERIOR FOREARM
POSTERIOR FOREARM
❖ Abductor pollicis longus
Origin: Posterior ulna and radius and interosseous membrane
Action: Abducts and extends thumb; abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends and abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi radialis longus
Origin: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
Action: Extends and abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi ulnaris
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus and ulna
Action: Extends and adducts wrist
❖ Extensor digiti minimi
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends little finger and wrist
❖ Extensor digitorum
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends fingers and wrist
❖ Extensor indicis
Origin: Ulna
Action: Extends forefinger and wrist
❖ Extensor pollicis brevis
Origin: Radius
Action: Extends and abducts thumb; abducts wrist
❖ Extensor pollicis longus
Origin: Ulna
Action: Extends thumb
EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC HAND MUSCLE
The extrinsic hand muscles extend the wrist and fingers. These muscles are located
in the posterior forearm but have tendons that extend into the hand. A strong ring of
fibrous connective tissue, the extensor retinaculum encircles the flexor and extensor
tendons to hold them in place around the wrist, so that they do not “bowstring” (pull
away from the bone). While the intrinsic hand muscles, which move the fingers, are
entirely within the hand. They contain the origin and insertions within the carpal and
metacarpal bones. Extrinsic hand muscles are in the forearm. Intrinsic hand muscles
are in the hand during muscle contraction.
➢ Supraspinatus- helps to resist the gravitational forces which act on the shoulder joint
to pull from the weight of the upper limb downward. It also helps to stabilize the
shoulder joint by keeping the head of the humerus firmly pressed medially against
the glenoid fossa of the scapula.
➢ Infraspinatus- assists in producing shoulder extension. With the arm fixed, it
abducts the inferior angle of the scapula.
➢ Subscapularis- its primary function is internal rotation but can also aid in adducting
the humerus. The subscapularis nerve innervates the muscle. The subscapular artery
provides blood supply, and lymph drainage flows into the axillary nodes.
➢ Teres minor- stabilizes the ball-and-socket glenohumeral joint by helping hold the
humeral head (ball) into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula (socket). The teres
minor also laterally or externally rotates the arm at the shoulder joint.
MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH
The hip muscles encompass many muscles of the hip and thigh whose main function
is to act on the thigh at the hip joint and stabilize the pelvis. Without them, walking
would be impossible. They can be divided into three main groups:
➢ Iliopsoas group
➢ Gluteal muscles
➢ Hip adductors
This article will introduce the muscles in each group and touch on their origin, insertion,
function, and innervation.
➢ Iliopsoas group
Muscles: iliacus, psoas major, and psoas minor
Main function: flexion of the trunk and thigh, lateral flexion of the trunk (excluding
psoas major and minor only)
Innervation: anterior rami of spinal nerves L1-L3 and femoral nerve (L2-L4) (iliacus
only)
➢ Hip adductors
Muscles: Gracilis, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, and
adductor minimus
Main function: Adduction of the thigh at the hip joint
Innervation: Obturator nerve (L2-L4) and femoral nerve (L2-L3) (pectineus only)
LATERAL COMPARTMENT
❖ Fubularis brevis
Origin: Inferior two-thirds of lateral fibula.
Action: Everts and plantar flexes foot.
❖ Fubularis longus
Origin: Superior two-thirds of lateral fibula.
Action: Everts and plantar flexes foot.
POSTERIOR COMPARTMENT
SUPERFICIAL
❖ Gastrocnemius
Origin: Medial and lateral condyles of femur.
Action: Plantar flexes foot; flexes knee.
❖ Plantaris
Origin: Femur.
Action: Plantar flexes foot; flexes knee.
❖ Soleus
Origin: Fibula and tibia.
Action: Plantar flexes foot
DEEP
Plantar fasciitis occurs when the plantar fascia, a strong band of tissue that
supports the arch of your foot, becomes irritated and inflamed.
The plantar fascia is a long, thin ligament that lies directly beneath the skin
on the bottom of your foot. It connects the heel to the front of your foot and
supports the arch of your foot.
The plantar fascia is designed to absorb the high stresses and strains we
place on our feet when walking, running, and doing other activities like
playing sports. But, sometimes, too much pressure damages or tears the
tissues. The body's natural response to injury is inflammation, which results
in the heel pain and stiffness of plantar fasciitis.
SHINSPLINTS
Shin splints is a term for pain felt anywhere along the shinbone, from knee to
ankle. The pain is caused by an inflammation of the muscle’s tendons, and bone
tissue around the front of the lower leg (called the tibia or shin bone). They are
common in runners and dancers, and the treatment involves rest and changing
your exercise routine.
THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL, SMOOTH, AND
CARDIAC MUSCLE
All muscle cells share several properties: contractility, excitability, extensibility, and
elasticity:
Resting (non-signaling) neurons have a voltage across their membrane called the
resting membrane potential, or simply the resting potential. The resting membrane
potential is the potential energy (voltage) that results from the separation of opposite
charges across the plasma membrane when no charges are stimulating the cell (the cell
membrane is at rest). The inside of the cell membrane is more negative than the outside.
The resting potential is determined by the concentration gradient of ions across the
membrane and the membrane permeability of each type of ion.
The resting membrane potential of a neuron is the electrical potential inside the
cell relative to the adjacent extracellular space. It is caused by differences in the
concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell. If the membrane were equally permeable
to all ions, each type of ion would flow across the membrane and the system would reach
equilibrium.
The resting membrane potential is maintained by two types of ion channels:
Sodium-potassium pump and sodium and potassium leak channels. It is maintained by
increasing the concentration of cations outside the cell (in the extracellular fluid) relative
to inside the cell (in the cytoplasm). Sodium, potassium, and chloride ions are present at
the highest concentrations and thus generally play the most important role in generating
the resting membrane potential. It is the K+ leaking from the inside of the cell to the outside
through K+ leak channels that creates the resting membrane potential, creating a negative
charge inside the membrane relative to the outside. In the resting state, all Na+ channels
are closed, as all of the membrane is impermeable to Na+.
Ion channels are ubiquitous membrane proteins in mammalian cells. Their important
physiological roles include regulation of transmembrane potentials, facilitation of
neuromuscular and neuronal transmission, signal transduction (signaling), regulation of
secretion and contractility. Ion channels are involved in the transmembrane flow of ions
leading to the generation of action potentials. There is a surprising variety of different types
of channels that can be activated by different stimuli.
In excitable cells such as cardiomyocytes and neurons, the activity of various ion
channels establishes a resting membrane potential and generates action potentials to initiate
essential biological processes including (but not limited to) control. Muscle contraction,
neurotransmitter release, regulation of gene expression.
PRODUCTION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL, INCLUDING
DEPOLARIZATION AND REPOLARIZATION
➢ An action potential is a reversal of the resting membrane potential such that the
inside of the plasma membrane becomes positively charged compared with the
outside.
➢ The depolarization phase of the action potential is a brief period during which
further depolarization occurs and the inside of the cell becomes positively
charged.
➢ The repolarization phase is the return of the membrane potential to its resting
Action potentials occur according to the all-or-none principle, which means that all
action potentials are identical.
THE STRUCTURE OF A NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION AND HOW AN
ACTION POTENTIAL IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS THE JUNCTION
➢ The neuromuscular junction consists of a group of enlarged axon terminals that
rests in an invagination of the sarcolemma. Therefore, a neuromuscular junction
consists of the axon terminals and the area of the muscle fiber sarcolemma they
innervate. Each axon terminal is the presynaptic terminal. The space between the
presynaptic terminal and the muscle fiber is the synaptic cleft, and the muscle plasma
membrane in the area of the junction is the postsynaptic membrane, or motor end-
plate. Each presynaptic terminal contains numerous mitochondria and many small,
spherical sacs approximately 45 μm in diameter, called synaptic vesicles. The
vesicles contain acetylcholine, an organic molecule composed of acetic acid and
choline. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a substance released from a presynaptic
membrane that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and alters the activity of the
postsynaptic cell.
➢ The motor neurons carry electrical signals called action potentials, which
stimulate muscle fiber action potentials followed by muscle contraction.
Neurotransmitters can stimulate (or inhibit) the production of an action potential in
the postsynaptic membrane (the sarcolemma) by binding to ligand-gated ion
channels.
❖ The acetylcholine molecules released from the synaptic vesicles then diffuse across
the cleft and bind to receptor molecules within the postsynaptic membrane of the
skeletal muscle fiber. This causes ligand-gated Na channels to open, increasing the
permeability of the membrane to Na. Sodium ions then diffuse into the cell, causing
depolarization. In skeletal muscle, each action potential in the motor neuron causes
a depolarization that exceeds threshold, which causes changes in voltage-gated ion
channels that produce an action potential in the muscle fiber.
➢ The latent period, or lag phase, the contraction phase, and the relaxation
phase. The latent period is a short delay (1-2 msec) from the time when the
action potential reaches the muscle until tension can be observed in the
muscle. This is the time required for calcium to diffuse out of the SR, bind to
troponin, the movement of tropomyosin off of the active sites, formation of
cross bridges, and taking up any slack that may be in the muscle.
➢ The Relaxation phase is the time for the muscle to return to its normal length.
The length of the twitch varies between different muscle types and could be
as short as 10 ms (milliseconds) or as long as 100 ms (more on this later).
TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE