MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
LEADER: Mary Angel Canas
MEMBERS: Maria Krissabelle Abanes
Clarisse S. Caballero
Ralph Lorence Cabilao
Erma Mae Cabrera
Pia Isabelle Cartin
Jezy Byle S. Jayme
Graizyle Fern Ranara
Raiza Abegail Roxas
Christine Lyn Sayson
Muscle Origin
➢ refers to a muscle's proximal attachment—the end of the muscle closest to the torso.
For example, the bicep muscle's origin is located at the shoulder.

Insertion of a Muscle
➢ defined as the place where one end of a muscle is attached to the freely moving bone
of its joint. Example Muscle insertion refers to a muscle's distal attachment—the end
of the muscle furthest away from the torso. For example, the bicep insertion occurs
at the elbow.

Agonist function of a group of muscles

➢ used to classify muscles. Agonist, fixator, or agonist muscles are all examples of
muscles that cooperate. Muscle groups known as antagonist muscles are made up of
some muscles that contract while others relax. Conversely, antagonist muscles are
those that obstruct another's physiological activity. They eccentrically contract, or
slacken, to stretch the muscle so that the action of the agonist at the joint would
occur. It stabilizes the agonist muscle's origin, enabling the agonist muscle to
function properly. For example, when you perform a bicep curl the biceps will be
the agonist as it contracts to produce the movement, while the triceps will be the
antagonist as it relaxes to allow the movement to occur.

Antagonistic muscle
➢ pair as one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. The muscle that
is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is
called the antagonist. Example of antagonistic muscles are the biceps and the triceps.
As the agonist muscle contracts, the antagonist relaxes, helping to manage and
regulate the movement of the former.

Synergist Muscles
➢ act around a moveable joint to produce motion similar to or in concert with agonist
muscles. They often act to reduce excessive force generated by the agonist muscle
and are referred to as neutralizers. For example, iliacus, psoas major, and rectus
femoris all can act to flex the hip joint.

Fixator Muscle
 ➢ serves as a stabilizer of one part of the body during movement of another part. It
allows the agonist muscle to work effectively by stabilizing the origin of the agonist
muscle so that the latter can pull against the bone without it moving thereby achieve
an effective contraction. For example, The abdominals can act as fixators to stabilize
the body for hip and knee movements.

Prime mover (sometimes called the agonist)

➢ the muscle that provides the primary force driving the action. An antagonist muscle
is in opposition to a prime mover in that it provides some resistance and/or reverses
a given movement. For example, biceps brachii is the prime mover, the brachialis is
a synergistic muscle for that action. Synergists: act together. For example, the biceps
brachii and brachialis muscles both act to flex the forearm.

MUSCLE NAME BASED SPECIFIC NOMENCLATURE RULES

1. Location. A pectoralis (chest) muscle is located in the chest, a gluteus (buttock)

muscle is in the buttock, and a brachial (arm) muscle is in the arm.
2. Size. The gluteus maximus (large) is the largest muscle of the buttock, and the gluteus
minimus (small) is the smallest. A longus (long) muscle is longer than a brevis (short)
muscle. In addition, a second part to the name immediately tells us there is more than one
related muscle. For example, if there is a brevis muscle, most likely a longus muscle is
present in the same area.
3. Shape. The deltoid (triangular) muscle is triangular in shape, a quadratus (quadrate)
muscle is rectangular, and a teres (round) muscle is round.
4. Orientation of fascicles. A rectus (straight, parallel) muscle has muscle fascicles
running in the same direction as the structure with which the muscle is associated,
whereas the fascicles of an oblique muscle lie at an angle to the length of the structure.
5. Origin and insertion. The sternocleidomastoid has its origin on the sternum and
clavicle and its insertion on the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The brachioradialis
originates in the arm (brachium) and inserts onto the radius.
6. Number of heads. A biceps muscle has two heads (origins), and a triceps muscle has
three heads (origins).
7. Function. Body movements have names, for example, abduction and adduction.
Abductors and adductors are the muscles that cause that type of movement. Abduction
moves a structure away from the midline, and adduction moves a structure toward the
midline.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ORIGIN AND THE INSERTION OF A

MUSCLE AND IN WHICH DIRECTION IS THE MOVEMENT

➢ Origin is where it starts from, insertion is where it ends. The "origin" indicates the
position on the skeletal structure where the muscle is fixed and does not move. The
origin of a muscle is the point on a bone where it is said to 'start' as a rule, the origin
tends to be higher up, or closer to the midline than the insertion.
➢ The "insertion" is where it connects to the moving part of the skeleton. For the
upper arm, the origin is near the shoulder, and the insertions are in the large bones
of the forearm, the radius and the ulna. The insertion is where the muscle attaches to
another bone further down, or further from the midline.
The origin muscle is usually proximal to the body and does not move during
contraction. The clavicle and sternum are examples of muscle origin. Introductory muscles
are usually distal to the body and move bones and joints when contracted. The humerus is
an example of muscle insertion.

THE ROLES OF THE FOLLOWING MUSCLE ACTION; AGONIST,

ANTAGONIST, SYNERGIST, FIXATOR, AND PRIME MOVER

❖ Agonist - Causes a certain movement. An agonist muscle produces a major

movement or series of movements by contracting itself. To produce movement, the
agonist muscle must be physically positioned across the tendon and across the joint.
Contraction moves the limbs connected to this joint. One way to remember which
muscle is the agonist – it`s the one that's in 'agony' when you are doing the movement
as it is the one that is doing all the work.

❖ Antagonist-Acts opposite to the agonist. Antagonist muscles are the opposite of

prime movers in that they provide some degree of resistance or reverse a particular
movement. It usually retracts to return the limb to its original resting position.
 During forearm flexion, the triceps brachii is the antagonist muscle, resisting
movement of the forearm toward the shoulder.
In pairs of antagonistic muscles, contraction of one muscle causes relaxation or
lengthening of the other muscle. A muscle that contracts is called an agonist muscle,
and a muscle that relaxes or stretches is called an antagonist muscle.
❖ Synergist- Muscles that function together to produce movement. Synergistic
muscles act around diarthrodial joints and produce motion similar to or shared with
agonistic muscles. They often work to reduce the excess force generated by prime
mover muscles and are called neutralizers. They stabilize the joints where movement
occurs, helping agonists work effectively. Synergistic muscles also help create
movement. The muscles that support that movement are called synergists. Synergists
that make the insertion site more stable are called fixatives.

❖ Fixator- Stabilize the action of the prime movers. It stabilizes the origin of the
agonist and the joint that it spans (moving), helping the agonist to function most
effectively and allowing the agonist to achieve maximum and effective contractions.
For the biceps curl, these are the rotator cuff muscles, the "protectors of the shoulder
joint". The fixation muscles become tense, but they are unable to move. Acts to
eliminate unwanted movement of the agonist or prime mover origin. Many muscles
attach to multiple bones. When this happens, it is called a polyarticular or
polyarticular muscle.

❖ Prime mover- Responsible for a movement. Primary movers, sometimes called

agonists, are the muscles that provide the primary force driving action. They are
the muscles primarily involved in generating movement. These muscles are
responsible for counteracting the movements created by the agonist and returning
the limb to its original position.
DIFFERENT ORIENTATIONS OF MUSCLE FASCICLES
Muscle Fascicles
CIRCULAR MUSCLES
➢ act as sphincters to close the opening
Examples:
Orbicularis oris, Orbicularis oculi
CONVERGENT MUSCLES
➢ have fascicles that join at one common tendon from a
wide area, which creates muscles that are triangular in
shape. Having fibers that lie side by side can result in
muscles with less strength if the total number of fibers
is low. However, if the fibers are long, these muscles
can have a large range of motion.
Examples:
Pectoralis major, Pectoralis minor

PARALLEL
➢ have fascicles that are organized parallel
to the long axis of the muscle, but they
terminate on a flat tendon that spans the
width of the entire muscle. As a
consequence, parallel muscles can
shorten to a large degree because the
fascicles are in a direct line with the
tendon; however, they contract with less
force because fewer total fascicles
are attached to the tendon.
Examples:
Trapezius, Rhomboideus, Rectus abdominis

PENNATE MUSCLE
➢ have fascicles that emerge like the barbs
on a feather from a common tendon that
runs the length of the entire muscle. The
location of the fascicles relative to the
tendon is the basis for different types of
pennate muscles. In unipennate muscles,
the fascicles are on one side of the
tendon. Bipennate muscles have fascicles
arranged on two sides of the tendon.
Multipennate muscles are those with
fascicles arranged at many places around the central tendon. The long tendons of
pennate muscles can extend for some distance between a muscle belly and its
insertion. The pennate arrangement allows a large number of fascicles to attach to
a single tendon, with the force of contraction concentrated at the tendon. The
muscles that extend the knee are multipennate muscles.

Examples:
Palmar interosseus, Semimembranosus, Rectus femoris, Deltoid

CRITERIA USED TO NAME MUSCLES

1. Direction of the muscle fibers

Example:
• External oblique

2. Relative size of the muscle

• Maximus
• Minimus
• Longus

3. Location of the muscle

• Temporalis
• Frontalis

4. Number of origins
• Biceps
• Triceps
• Quadriceps

5. Location of the muscle's origin and insertion

 • the sternocleidomastoid muscle has its origin on the sternum [sterno]
• clavicle [cleido] and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone

6. Shape of the muscle

• the deltoid muscle is roughly triangular - deltoid means "triangular"

7. Action of the muscle

• the adductor muscles of the thigh all bring about its adduction
• the extensor muscles of the wrist all extend the wrist

MUSCLE OF THE NECK AND HEAD ACCORDING TO ORIGIN,

INSERTION AND NERVE SUPPLY
 Muscle Origin Insertion Nerve Action
Anterior
Longus capitis C3-C6 Occipital Bone C1-C3 Flexes Neck

Rectus Capitis Atlas Occipital Bone C1-C2 Flexes Neck

Anterior
Posterior
Longissimus Capitis Upper Thoracic Mastoid Process Dorsal rami of Extends, rotates,
and lower cervical cervical nerves and laterally
vertebrae flexes neck
Oblique Capitis
Superior Atlas Occipital Bone Dorsal ramus of Extends and
(inferior nuchal C1 laterally flexes
line) neck
Rectus Capitis Axis, atlas Occipital Bone Dorsal ramus of
Posterior C1 Extends and
rotates neck
Semispinalis capitis C4-T6 Occipital Bone Dorsal rami of
cervical nerves Extends and
Splenius Capitis C4-T6 Superior nuchal rotates neck
line and mastoid Dorsal rami of
process cervical nerves Extends, rotates,
and laterally
Trapezius Occipital Clavicle, flexes neck
protuberance, acromion process Accessory
nuchal ligament, and scapular (cranial nerve XI) Extends and
spinous processes spine literally flexes
of C7-T12 neck
Lateral
Rectus capitis Atlas Occipital bone C1 Laterally flexes
lateralis neck

Sternocleidomastoid Manubrium and Mastoid process Accessory One contracting

medial clavicle and superior (cranial nerve XI) alone, laterally
nuchal plain flexes head and
neck to same side
and rotates and
neck to opposite
side.

Both contracting
together: flex
neck

Scalene muscles C2-C6 first and second Cervical and Flex, laterally
ribs brachial plexuses flex, and rotate
neck
 MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION
Muscle Origin Insertion Nerve Action
Auricularis
Anterior Aponeurosis over Cartilage of Facial Draws auricle superiorly
head auricle and anteriorly
Draws auricle
Posterior Mastoid Process Posterior root of Facial posteriorly
auricle
Draws auricle superiorly
Superior Aponeurosis over Cartilage of Facial and posteriorly
head auricle
Buccinator Mandible and Orbicularis at Facial Retracts angle of mouth,
maxilla angle of mouth flattens, cheek
Corrugator Nasal bridge and Skin of eyebrow Facial Depresses medial
supercilii orbicularis oculi portion of eyebrow;
draws eyebrows
together, as in frowning
Depressor anguli Lower border of Skin of lip near Facial Depresses angle of
oris mandible angle of mouth mouth
Depressor labii Lower border of Skin of lower lip Facial Depresses lower lip
inferioris mandible and orbicularis
oris
Levator anguli oris Maxilla Skin at angle of Facial Elevates angle of mouth
mouth and
orbicularis oris
Levator labii Maxilla Skin and and Facial Elevates upper lip
superioris orbicularis oris of
upper lip
Levator labiin Maxilla Ala at nose and Facial Elevates ala of nose and
superioris alaeque upper lip upper lip
nasi
Levator palpebrae Lesser wing of Skin of eyelid Oculomotor Elevates upper eyelid
superioris sphenoid
Mentalis Mandible Skin of chin Facial Elevates and wrinkles
skin over chin;
protrudes lower lip
Nasalis Maxilla Bridge and ala of Facial Dilates nostril
nose
Occipitofrontalis Occipital bone Skin of eyebrow Facial Moves scalp; elevates
and nose eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi Maxilla and Circles orbit and Facial Closes eye
frontal bones inserts near origin
Orbicularis oris Nasal septum, Fascia and other Facial Closes lips
maxilla and muscles of lips
mandible
Platysma Fascia of deltoid Skin over inferior Facial Depresses lower lip,
and pectoralis border of wrinkles skin of neck
major mandible and upper chest
Procerus Bridge of nose Frontalis Facial Creates horizontal
wrinkles between eyes,
as in frowning
Risorius Platysma and Orbicularis oris Facial Abducts angle of mouth
masseter fascia and skin at corner
of mouth
Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Angle of mouth Facial Elevates and abducts
major upper lip
Zygomaticus Zygomatic bone Orbicularis oris of Facial Elevates and abducts
minor upper lip upper lip

THE MUSCLES OF THE EYE WITH THEIR ACTIONS, ORIGIN, AND

NERVE SUPPLY

Muscles of Actions Origin Nerve Supply

the eyes
Superior Elevating the eye, causing the Originates from the annulus It is supplied by the
Rectus cornea to move superiorly. of Zinn and courses superior division of the
anteriorly and superiorly oculomotor nerve (III)
over the globe.
Inferior Depressing the eye. Causing the Originated from the It is supplied by the
Rectus cornea and pupil to move Annulus of Zinn and courses lower division of
inferiorly. anteriorly and laterally cranial nerve III
along the orbital floor. (oculomotor)
Lateral It is an abductor and moves the It is on both limbs of the It is the only muscle
Rectus eye laterally. common tendinous ring supplied by the cranial
and the spina recti lateralis. nerve VI - the
abducens nerve.
Medial It allows the eye to move from Its origin is from both the It is innervated by the
Rectus side to side. upper and the lower parts lower division of
of the common ring tendon cranial nerve III.
and from the sheath of the
optic nerve.
Superior The superior oblique muscle's its origin on the lesser wing It is supplied by the
Oblique primary action is eye intorsion, of the sphenoid bone, trochlear nerve (IV)
with secondary and tertiary medial to the optic canal
actions being eye depression and near the frontoethmoidal
abduction, respectively suture.
Inferior Is responsible for extortion, The inferior oblique It is supplied by the
Oblique elevation, and abduction. originates from the orbital inferior division of the
Because of their course, the
 superior and inferior oblique floor just lateral to the oculomotor nerve (CN
muscles are the only muscles that nasolacrimal groove. III)
can depress or elevate the eye,
respectively when the eye moves
in adduction.

THE MUSCLES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND THE ACTION

Erector Spinae:

• Iliocostalis - it is the lateral division of the sacrospinalis muscle that helps to keep
the trunk erect. The action of iliocostalis is to extend the vertebral column.
• Cervicis - The origin of the cervicis are sacrum, ilium, and lumbar spines. The action
of the cervicis is to extend, laterally flex, and rotate the vertebral column.
• Thoracis - It is the middle section of the spine. It starts at the base of the neck and
ends at the bottom of your ribs. It extends, laterally flexes, and rotates the vertebral
column.
• Lumborum - Is a muscle of the posterior abdominal wall lying deep inside the
abdomen and dorsal to the iliopsoas. It extends, laterally flexes, and rotates the
vertebral column.

Longissimus

• Longissimus Capitis - it is a part of the longest muscle of the neck. It acts to extend
the head.
• Longissimus Cervicis - it is the middle portion of the muscle located between
longissimus capitis and longissimus thoracis. Its action is to extend the neck.
• Longissimus Thoracis - it is a long intrinsic muscle of the back, it is also the largest
of the erector spinae muscles. It extends the vertebral column.

Spinalis:

• Spinalis Cervicis - it is an inconsistent muscle that arises especially from the spinous
processes of the lower cervical and upper thoracic vertebrae and inserts especially
into the spinous process of the axis. It extends the neck.
• Spinalis Thoracis - Is the thoracic part of the spinalis muscles that attaches to
thoracic vertebral spinous processes and continues forward as spinalis cervicis. The
action of spinalis thoracis is to extend the vertebral column.
 • Semispinalis Cervicis - It is a muscle of the back, this muscle belongs to the
spinotransverse group of deep back muscles. It extends the neck.

Semispinalis

• Semispinalis Thoracis - It is a thin, fleshy fascicle with long tendons at either end,
it also covers the thoracic multifidus muscle. It extends the vertebral column.
• Splenius cervicis - It is a flat narrow muscle on each side of the back of the neck and
the upper thoracic region that arises from the spinous processes of the third and to
sixth thoracic vertebrae. It rotates and extends the neck.
• Longus colli - It is a weak flexor of the cervical spine. It consists of upper (superior
oblique), lower (inferior oblique), and central (vertical or intermediate) fibers. It
flexes the neck.

Deep:

• Interspinales - It is any of various short muscles that have their origin on the superior
surface of the spinous process of one vertebra. It extends the back and the neck.
• Intertransversarii - Are small muscles of the back found between contiguous
transverse processes of the cervical, lumbar, and some thoracic vertebrae. It laterally
flexes the vertebral column.
• eMultifidus - A muscle of the fifth and deepest layer of the back filling up the groove
on each side of the spinous processes of the vertebrae from the sacrum to the skull
and consisting of many fasciculi that pass upward and inward to the spinous
processes and help to erect and rotate the spine. It extends and rotates the vertebral
column.
• Psoas minor - It is a long fusiform muscle on either side of the vertebral column and
the brim of the lesser pelvis. It flexes the vertebral column.
• Rotatores - To move the spine and back in several different directions, including a
forward bend. It extends and rotates the vertebral column.

MUSCLES OF THE THORAX AND THEIR ACTIONS

MUSCLE ACTION
Diaphragm Inhalation depresses floor of thorax
Intercostalis
External Quiet inhalation elevates ribs
Internal Forced exhalation depresses ribs
Scalenus
Anterior Elevates first rib
Medial Elevates first rib
Posterior Elevates second rib
Serratus Posterior
Inferior (not illustrated) Depresses inferior ribs and extends
vertebral column
Superior (not illustrated) Elevates superior ribs

Transversus thorcis (not illustrated) Decreases diameter of thorax

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMIBAL WALL AND THEIR ACTION

Muscle Explanation of Action

Anterior

Rectus abdominis Slung between the ribs and the pubic bone
at the front of the pelvis. When
contracting, this muscle has the
characteristic bumps or bulges that are
commonly called “the six pack”. The main
function of the rectus abdominis is to
move the body between the ribcage and
the pelvis.

External abdominal oblique These are on each side of rectus

abdominis. The external oblique muscles
allow the trunk to twist, but to the
opposite side of whichever external
oblique is contracting. For example, the
right external oblique contracts to turn the
body to the left.

Internal abdominal oblique
These flank the rectus abdominis and are
located just inside the hip bones. They
operate in the opposite way to the external
oblique muscles. For example, twisting the
trunk to the left requires the left side
 internal oblique and the right-side external
oblique to contract together.

The deepest muscle layer. Its main roles

Transversus abdominis are to stabilize the trunk and maintain
internal abdominal pressure.
Posterior

Quadratus lumborum Continue to the stabilization and

movement of the spine and the pelvis. A
bilateral contraction leads to an extension
of the lumbar vertebral column. When the
muscle is only activated on one side, the
trunk is bent toward that direction (lateral
flexion).

MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SHOULDER AND ARMS

SHOULDER MUSCLES

➢ Levator scapulte
• located under the pectoralis major
• Elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula; laterally flexes neck

➢ Pectoralis minor
• located under the pectoralis major, and both form the anterior wall of the
axilla
• Depresses scapula or elevates ribs

➢ Rhomboid major
• originates from the spinous processes of the second to second to fifth
thoracic vertebrae
• Retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula.

➢ Rhomboid minor
• on the back that connects the scapula with the vertebrae of the spinal column
 • Retracts, slightly elevates. rotates, and fixes.

➢ Serratus anterior
• located on each side of the chest.
• Rotates and protracts scapula; elevates rib

➢ Subclavius
• underneath the clavicle
• Fixes clavicle or elevates first ribs

➢ Trapezius
• from the external protuberance of the occipital bone to the lower thoracic
vertebrae and laterally to the spine of the scapula.
• Elevates, depresses, retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula; extends neck.

ARM MUSCLES

➢ Coracobrachialis
• located in the anterior, upper compartment of the arm
• Adducts arm and flexes shoulder

➢ Deltoid
• located in our shoulder
 • Flexes and extends shoulder, abducts and medially and laterally rotates arm

➢ Latissimus dorsi
• found superficially in the lower two-thirds of the trunk
• Adducts and medially rotates arm; extends shoulder

➢ Pectoralis Major
• lies underneath the breast tissue and forms the anterior wall of the axilla
• Flexes shoulder, adducts and medially rotates arm; extends shoulder from
flexed position

➢ Teres Major
• part of the upper arm and works together with the Latissimus Dorsi to create
certain movements.
• Extends shoulder, adducts and medially rotates arm

ROTATOR CUFF

➢ Infraspinatus
• located at the back of your shoulder.
• Laterally rotates arm; holds head of humerus in place

➢ Subscapularis
• originates at the subscapular fossa and inserts into the lesser tubercle of the
humerus
• Medially rotates arm; holds head of humerus in place

➢ Supraspinatus
• resides in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula, superior to the scapular
spine
• Abducts arm; holds head of humerus in place

➢ Teres minor
• arises from the posterior surface of the scapula, directly adjacent to the upper
part of its lateral border.
• Laterally rotates and adducts arm; holds head of humerus in place
MUSCLES AND MOVEMENTS OF THE FOREARM, WRIST, HAND, AND
FINGERS
ANTERIOR FOREARM

❖ Flexor carpi radialis

Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus.
Action: Flexes and abducts wrist
❖ Flexor carpi ulnaris
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus and ulna.
Action: Flexes and adducts wrist
❖ Flexor digitorum profundus
Origin: Ulna.
Action: Flexes fingers at metacarpophalangeal joints and interphalangeal joints
and wrist
❖ Flexor digitorum superficialis
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process, and radius
Action: Flexes fingers at interphalangeal joints and wrist.
❖ Flexor pollicis longus
Origin: Radius
Action: Flexes thumb
❖ Palmaris longus
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus
Action: Tenses palmar fascia; flexes wrist

POSTERIOR FOREARM
❖ Abductor pollicis longus
Origin: Posterior ulna and radius and interosseous membrane
Action: Abducts and extends thumb; abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends and abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi radialis longus
Origin: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
Action: Extends and abducts wrist
❖ Extensor carpi ulnaris
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus and ulna
Action: Extends and adducts wrist
❖ Extensor digiti minimi
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends little finger and wrist
❖ Extensor digitorum
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
Action: Extends fingers and wrist
❖ Extensor indicis
Origin: Ulna
Action: Extends forefinger and wrist
❖ Extensor pollicis brevis
Origin: Radius
Action: Extends and abducts thumb; abducts wrist
❖ Extensor pollicis longus
Origin: Ulna
Action: Extends thumb
EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC HAND MUSCLE

The extrinsic hand muscles extend the wrist and fingers. These muscles are located
in the posterior forearm but have tendons that extend into the hand. A strong ring of
fibrous connective tissue, the extensor retinaculum encircles the flexor and extensor
tendons to hold them in place around the wrist, so that they do not “bowstring” (pull
away from the bone). While the intrinsic hand muscles, which move the fingers, are
entirely within the hand. They contain the origin and insertions within the carpal and
metacarpal bones. Extrinsic hand muscles are in the forearm. Intrinsic hand muscles
are in the hand during muscle contraction.

MUSCLES FORMING THE ROTATOR CUFF

➢ Supraspinatus- helps to resist the gravitational forces which act on the shoulder joint
to pull from the weight of the upper limb downward. It also helps to stabilize the
shoulder joint by keeping the head of the humerus firmly pressed medially against
the glenoid fossa of the scapula.
➢ Infraspinatus- assists in producing shoulder extension. With the arm fixed, it
abducts the inferior angle of the scapula.
➢ Subscapularis- its primary function is internal rotation but can also aid in adducting
the humerus. The subscapularis nerve innervates the muscle. The subscapular artery
provides blood supply, and lymph drainage flows into the axillary nodes.
➢ Teres minor- stabilizes the ball-and-socket glenohumeral joint by helping hold the
humeral head (ball) into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula (socket). The teres
minor also laterally or externally rotates the arm at the shoulder joint.
MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH

The hip muscles encompass many muscles of the hip and thigh whose main function
is to act on the thigh at the hip joint and stabilize the pelvis. Without them, walking
would be impossible. They can be divided into three main groups:

➢ Iliopsoas group
➢ Gluteal muscles
➢ Hip adductors

This article will introduce the muscles in each group and touch on their origin, insertion,
function, and innervation.

➢ Iliopsoas group
Muscles: iliacus, psoas major, and psoas minor
Main function: flexion of the trunk and thigh, lateral flexion of the trunk (excluding
psoas major and minor only)
Innervation: anterior rami of spinal nerves L1-L3 and femoral nerve (L2-L4) (iliacus
only)

➢ Gluteal muscles (deep)

Muscles: piriformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior, obturator
externus, and quadratus femoris
Main function: external rotation and abduction of the thigh; stabilizes head of femur
Innervation: varied – nerve to piriformis (S1-S2), nerve to obturator internus (L5-S2),
nerve to quadratus femoris (L4-S1), obturator nerve (L3-L4)

➢ Hip adductors
Muscles: Gracilis, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, and
adductor minimus
Main function: Adduction of the thigh at the hip joint
Innervation: Obturator nerve (L2-L4) and femoral nerve (L2-L3) (pectineus only)

MUSCLES AND MOVEMENTS OF THE ANKLE, FOOT, AND TOES

ANTERIOR COMPARTMENT

❖ Extensor digitorum longus

Origin: Lateral condyle of tibia and fibula.
Action: It extends four lateral toes; dorsiflexes and events foot
❖ Extensor hallucis longus
Origin: Middle fibula and interosseous membrane.
Action: It extends great toe; dorsiflexes and inverts toes.
❖ Tabialis Anterior
Origin: Proximal, lateral tibia and interosseous membrane.
Action: Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
❖ Febularis Tertius
Origin: Fibula and interosseous membrane.
Action: Dorsiflexes and everts foot.

LATERAL COMPARTMENT

❖ Fubularis brevis
Origin: Inferior two-thirds of lateral fibula.
Action: Everts and plantar flexes foot.

❖ Fubularis longus
Origin: Superior two-thirds of lateral fibula.
Action: Everts and plantar flexes foot.

POSTERIOR COMPARTMENT

SUPERFICIAL

❖ Gastrocnemius
Origin: Medial and lateral condyles of femur.
Action: Plantar flexes foot; flexes knee.
❖ Plantaris
Origin: Femur.
Action: Plantar flexes foot; flexes knee.
❖ Soleus
Origin: Fibula and tibia.
 Action: Plantar flexes foot

DEEP

❖ Flexor digitorum longus

Origin: Tibia.
Action: Flexes four lateral toes; plantar flexes and inverts foot.
❖ Flexor hallucis longus
Origin: Fibula.
Action: Flexes great toe; plantar flexes and inverts foot.
❖ Popliteus
Origin: Lateral femoral condyle.
Action: Flexes knee; medially rotates leg
❖ Tabialis posterior
Origin: Tibia, interosseous membrane, and fibula.
Action: Plantar flexes and inverts foot
PLANTAR FASCIITIS

Plantar fasciitis occurs when the plantar fascia, a strong band of tissue that
supports the arch of your foot, becomes irritated and inflamed.
The plantar fascia is a long, thin ligament that lies directly beneath the skin
on the bottom of your foot. It connects the heel to the front of your foot and
supports the arch of your foot.
The plantar fascia is designed to absorb the high stresses and strains we
place on our feet when walking, running, and doing other activities like
playing sports. But, sometimes, too much pressure damages or tears the
tissues. The body's natural response to injury is inflammation, which results
in the heel pain and stiffness of plantar fasciitis.
SHINSPLINTS

Shin splints is a term for pain felt anywhere along the shinbone, from knee to
ankle. The pain is caused by an inflammation of the muscle’s tendons, and bone
tissue around the front of the lower leg (called the tibia or shin bone). They are
common in runners and dancers, and the treatment involves rest and changing
your exercise routine.
 THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL, SMOOTH, AND
CARDIAC MUSCLE

Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

Location Attached to bones Walls of hollow Heart
organs, blood
vessels, eyes,
glands, and skin
Appearance

Cell Shape Very long and Spindle-shaped Cylindrical and

cylindrical (1 mm–4 (15–200 μm in branched (100–500
cm, or as much as length, 5–8 μm in μm in length, 12–20
30 cm, in length, diameter) μm in diameter)
10 µm–100 μm in
diameter)
Nucleus Multiple nuclei: Single, centrally Single, centrally
peripherally located located located
Special Cell- to- None Gap junctions join Intercalated disks
Cell Attachments some visceral join cells to one
smooth muscle cells another
together
Striations Yes No Yes
Control Voluntary and Involuntary Involuntary
involuntary
(reflexes)
Capable of No Yes (some smooth Yes
Spontaneous muscle)
Contraction
Function Body movement Moving food Pumping blood;
through the contractions provide
digestive tract, the major force for
emptying the propelling blood
urinary bladder,
 regulating blood through blood
vessel diameter, vessels
changing pupil size,
contracting many
gland ducts, moving
hair, and having
many other
functions

FOUR SPECIALIZED FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE

TISSUE

All muscle cells share several properties: contractility, excitability, extensibility, and
elasticity:

➢ Contractility is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten. For instance, in

order to flex (decrease the angle of a joint) your elbow you need to contract
(shorten) the biceps brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the anterior arm.
Notice that in order to extend your elbow, the posterior arm extensor muscles
need to contract. Thus, muscles can only pull, never push. For example, in order
to flex (decrease the angle of a joint) your elbow you need to contract (shorten)
the biceps brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the anterior arm.

➢ Excitability is the ability to respond to a stimulus, which may be delivered from

a motor neuron or a hormone. Example skeletal, cardiac and smooth. All muscle
tissues have characteristics in common: excitability.

➢ Extensibility is the ability of a muscle to be stretched. For instance, let's

reconsider our elbow flexing motion we discussed earlier. In order to be able to
flex the elbow, the elbow extensor muscles must extend in order to allow flexion
to occur. Lack of extensibility is known as spasticity. For example, let's
reconsider our elbow flexing motion we discussed earlier. In order to be able to
flex the elbow, the elbow extensor muscles must extend in order to allow flexion
to occur.
 ➢ Elasticity is the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's original length
after being stretched. For instance, in order to be able to flex the elbow, the elbow
extensor muscles must extend in order to allow flexion to occur.
COMPONENTS OF A MUSCLE FIBER
➢ They contain tubular myofibrils made up of two different myofilaments – thin
filament (actin) and thick filament (myosin) The continuous membrane
surrounding the muscle fiber is called the sarcolemma and contains invaginations
called T tubules.
➢ Muscle fibers are single muscle cells. When grouped together, they work to
generate movement of your body and internal organs. You have three types of
muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. The muscle fibers in these types of
tissue all have different characteristics and qualities.
▪ Sarcolemma — membrane surrounding the muscle fiber.
▪ Transverse tubules — portion of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that stores and
releases calcium during contraction and relaxation.
▪ Myoneural junction — where motor nerve endings terminate on the
sarcolemma.
▪ Sarcoplasm — cytoplasm of muscle fibers.
TYPES OF MYOFILAMENTS
There are two main types of myofilaments: thick filaments and thin filaments.
Thick filaments are composed primarily of myosin proteins, the tails of which bind together
leaving the heads exposed to the interlaced thin filaments. Thin filaments are composed of
actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
➢ The thick filament consists largely of myosin. Six proteins make up myosin: two
heavy chains whose tails intertwine to form a supercoil and whose heads contain
actin binding sites and a catalytic site for ATP hydrolysis. Two myosin light chains
bind to each head region.
➢ Thin filaments are composed primarily of the contractile protein actin. They are
attached to the z discs of the striated muscle. Each thin filament is made up of three
proteins: (1) actin, (2) troponin, and (3) tropomyosin. Actin though is the main
protein component of the thin filament. The functions of the actin based thin
filaments are (1) interaction with myosin to produce force; (2) regulation of force
generation in response to Ca2+ concentration; and (3) transmission of the force to
the ends of the cell.
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL AND HOW IT IS GENERATED AND
MAINTAINED

Resting (non-signaling) neurons have a voltage across their membrane called the
resting membrane potential, or simply the resting potential. The resting membrane
potential is the potential energy (voltage) that results from the separation of opposite
charges across the plasma membrane when no charges are stimulating the cell (the cell
membrane is at rest). The inside of the cell membrane is more negative than the outside.
The resting potential is determined by the concentration gradient of ions across the
membrane and the membrane permeability of each type of ion.
The resting membrane potential of a neuron is the electrical potential inside the
cell relative to the adjacent extracellular space. It is caused by differences in the
concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell. If the membrane were equally permeable
to all ions, each type of ion would flow across the membrane and the system would reach
equilibrium.
The resting membrane potential is maintained by two types of ion channels:
Sodium-potassium pump and sodium and potassium leak channels. It is maintained by
increasing the concentration of cations outside the cell (in the extracellular fluid) relative
to inside the cell (in the cytoplasm). Sodium, potassium, and chloride ions are present at
the highest concentrations and thus generally play the most important role in generating
the resting membrane potential. It is the K+ leaking from the inside of the cell to the outside
through K+ leak channels that creates the resting membrane potential, creating a negative
charge inside the membrane relative to the outside. In the resting state, all Na+ channels
are closed, as all of the membrane is impermeable to Na+.

THE ROLE OF ION CHANNELS IN THE PRODUCTION OF AN ACTION

POTENTIAL

Ion channels are ubiquitous membrane proteins in mammalian cells. Their important
physiological roles include regulation of transmembrane potentials, facilitation of
neuromuscular and neuronal transmission, signal transduction (signaling), regulation of
secretion and contractility. Ion channels are involved in the transmembrane flow of ions
leading to the generation of action potentials. There is a surprising variety of different types
of channels that can be activated by different stimuli.
In excitable cells such as cardiomyocytes and neurons, the activity of various ion
channels establishes a resting membrane potential and generates action potentials to initiate
essential biological processes including (but not limited to) control. Muscle contraction,
neurotransmitter release, regulation of gene expression.
PRODUCTION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL, INCLUDING
DEPOLARIZATION AND REPOLARIZATION
➢ An action potential is a reversal of the resting membrane potential such that the
inside of the plasma membrane becomes positively charged compared with the
outside.
➢ The depolarization phase of the action potential is a brief period during which
further depolarization occurs and the inside of the cell becomes positively
charged.
➢ The repolarization phase is the return of the membrane potential to its resting
Action potentials occur according to the all-or-none principle, which means that all
action potentials are identical.
THE STRUCTURE OF A NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION AND HOW AN
ACTION POTENTIAL IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS THE JUNCTION
➢ The neuromuscular junction consists of a group of enlarged axon terminals that
rests in an invagination of the sarcolemma. Therefore, a neuromuscular junction
consists of the axon terminals and the area of the muscle fiber sarcolemma they
innervate. Each axon terminal is the presynaptic terminal. The space between the
presynaptic terminal and the muscle fiber is the synaptic cleft, and the muscle plasma
membrane in the area of the junction is the postsynaptic membrane, or motor end-
plate. Each presynaptic terminal contains numerous mitochondria and many small,
spherical sacs approximately 45 μm in diameter, called synaptic vesicles. The
 vesicles contain acetylcholine, an organic molecule composed of acetic acid and
choline. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a substance released from a presynaptic
membrane that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and alters the activity of the
postsynaptic cell.
➢ The motor neurons carry electrical signals called action potentials, which
stimulate muscle fiber action potentials followed by muscle contraction.
Neurotransmitters can stimulate (or inhibit) the production of an action potential in
the postsynaptic membrane (the sarcolemma) by binding to ligand-gated ion
channels.

EVENTS OF EXCITATION-CONTRACTION COUPLING

➢ Excitation-contraction coupling is he mechanism by which an action potential
causes contraction of a muscle fiber. Excitation-contraction coupling occurs
because of the anatomical association between the T tubules and the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. It begins at the neuromuscular junction with the production of an action
potential in the sarcolemma. The action potential is propagated along the entire
sarcolemma of the muscle fiber and into the T tubules. The T tubules carry action
potentials into the interior of the muscle fiber, where they cause voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels in the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to open.
THE STRUCTURE OF A NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION OR SYNAPSE
➢ The structure of a neuromuscular junction can be divided into three main parts: a
presynaptic part (nerve terminal), the postsynaptic part (motor end plate), and an
area between the nerve terminal and motor end plate. It is a type of synapse where
neuronal signals from the brain or spinal cord interact with skeletal fibers, causing
them to contract.
➢ The presynaptic part of the neuromuscular junction refers to the axonal terminal
motor neuron. The postsynaptic part of the neuromuscular junction is the skeletal
muscle fibers, the motor neurons make synapses on the sarcolemma or membrane of
the skeletal muscle fibers. The area between the nerve terminal and motor end plate
is also called the synaptic/ junctional cleft; it is where impulse is transmitted by a
neurotransmitter.
THE PROCESS OF TRANSFERRING THE ACTION POTENTIAL IN THE
PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL TO THE POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE; OR
MOTOR END PLATE
1. An action potential (orange arrow)
arrives at the presynaptic terminal
and causes voltage-gated Ca2+
channels in the presynaptic
membrane to open.
2. Calcium ions enter the presynaptic
terminal and initiate the release of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh) from synaptic vesicles.
3. ACh is released into the synaptic
cleft by exocytosis.
4. ACh diffuses across the synaptic
cleft and binds and ligand-gated
Na+ channels on the postsynaptic
membrane.
5. Ligand-gated Na+ channels open
and Na+ enters the postsynaptic
cell, causing the postsynaptic
membrane to depolarize. if the
depolarization membrane passes
 through the threshold, an action potential is generated along the postsynaptic
membrane.
6. ACh unbinds from the ligand-gated Na+ channels, which then close.
7. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase which is attached to the postsynaptic membrane,
removes acetylcholine from the synaptic cleft by breaking it down into acetic acid
and choline.
8. Choline is symported with Na+ into the presynaptic terminal, where it can be
recycled to make ACh. Acetic acid diffuses away from the synaptic cleft.
9. ACh is reformed within the presynaptic terminal using acetic acid generated from
metabolism and from choline recycled from the synaptic cleft. ACh is then up by
synaptic vesicles.
THE ION THAT IS NEEDED TO RELEASE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
FROM THE SYNAPTIC VESICLE, AND THE NEUROTRANSMITTER
THAT IS RELEASED TO SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS.

❖ Ca2+ triggers synaptic vesicle exocytosis, thereby releasing the

neurotransmitters contained in the vesicles and initiating synaptic transmission
❖ Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers. When the
nervous system signal reaches the neuromuscular junction, a chemical message
is released by the motor neuron. The chemical message, a neurotransmitter
called acetylcholine, binds to receptors on the outside of the muscle fiber. That
starts a chemical reaction within the muscle.

TWO TYPES OF VOLTAGE- GATED CHANNELS THAT PLAY

IMPORTANT ROLES IN THE PRODUCTION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

❖ Sodium Ion Channel (NA+)

❖ Potassium Ion Channel (K+)

THE IMPORTANCE OF ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE IN THE

SYNAPTIC CLEFT, AND WHAT WOULD OCCUR IS
ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE WERE NOT PRESENT

❖ The acetylcholine molecules released from the synaptic vesicles then diffuse across
the cleft and bind to receptor molecules within the postsynaptic membrane of the
skeletal muscle fiber. This causes ligand-gated Na channels to open, increasing the
 permeability of the membrane to Na. Sodium ions then diffuse into the cell, causing
depolarization. In skeletal muscle, each action potential in the motor neuron causes
a depolarization that exceeds threshold, which causes changes in voltage-gated ion
channels that produce an action potential in the muscle fiber.

❖ Without active acetylcholinesterase the neuromuscular junction will not work, so

muscle contraction will not be possible. Calcium concentration at the sarcolemma
will decrease, so muscle contraction will be impaired.
MUSCLE TWITCH AND THE EVENT THAT OCCUR IN EACH PHASE
OF A TWITCH

➢ Muscle twitch- Fasciculations occur when innervation from the peripheral

nervous system to the muscle is not working correctly and a muscle is
triggered involuntarily, causing it to twitch

➢ The latent period, or lag phase, the contraction phase, and the relaxation
phase. The latent period is a short delay (1-2 msec) from the time when the
action potential reaches the muscle until tension can be observed in the
muscle. This is the time required for calcium to diffuse out of the SR, bind to
troponin, the movement of tropomyosin off of the active sites, formation of
cross bridges, and taking up any slack that may be in the muscle.

➢ The contraction phase is when the muscle is generating tension and is

associated with cycling of the cross bridges.

➢ The Relaxation phase is the time for the muscle to return to its normal length.
The length of the twitch varies between different muscle types and could be
as short as 10 ms (milliseconds) or as long as 100 ms (more on this later).
 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

Types of Physiological Response

Physiological Characteristics
Response
Multiple-motor-unit Each motor unit responds in an all-or-none fashion. A
summation whole muscle is capable of producing an increasing
amount of tension as the number of motor units
stimulated increases.
Multiple -wave
summation Summation results when many action potentials are
produced in a muscle fiber.
▪ Contraction occurs in response to the first
action potential, but there is not enough time
for relaxation to occur between action
potentials.
▪ Because each action potential causes the
release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, the ion levels remain elevated in
the sarcoplasm to produce a tetanic reaction.

Treppe The tension produced as a result of multiple-wave

summation is greater than the tension produced by a
single muscle twitch. The increased tension results from
the greater concentration of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm and
the stretch of the elastic components of the muscle early
in contraction
Tetanus of muscle
Tetanus of a muscle results from a multiple-wave
summation; frequency of stimulus is higher than for
treppe.
▪ Incomplete tetanus occurs when the action
potential frequency is low enough to allow partial
relaxation of the muscle fibers.
Complete tetanus occurs when the action potential
frequency is high enough that no relaxation of the muscle
fiber occurs.
Isometric A muscle produces increasing tension as it remains at a
contractions constant length; this is characteristic of postural muscles
that maintain a constant tension without changing their
length.
Isotonic A muscle produces a constant tension and shortens during
contractions contraction, this is characteristic of finger and hand
movements.
▪ In concentric contractions, a muscle produces
tension as it shortens; this is characteristic of biceps
brachii curl exercises.
▪ In eccentric contractions, a muscle produces
tension as it resists lengthening; this is
characteristic of slowly descending a flight of
stairs.

DIFFERENT SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES

Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

Characteristics Slow-Twitch Fast-Twitch Fast-Twitch
Oxidative (SO) Oxidative Glycolytic (FG)
(Type I) Glycolytic (Type IIb)
(FOG)(Type IIa)
Myoglobin High High Low
Content
Mitochondria Many Many Few
Capillaries Many Many Few
Metabolism High aerobic Intermediate Low aerobic
capacity, low aerobic capacity, capacity, highest
anaerobic high anaerobic anaerobic capacity
capacity capacity
Fatigue High Intermediate Low
Resistance
Myosin ATPase Slow Fast Fast
Activity
Glycogen Low High High
Concentration
 Location Where Generally in Generally in lower Generally in upper
Fibers Are Most postural limbs limbs
Abundant muscles and
more in lower
limbs than
upper limbs
Functions Maintenance of Endurance Rapid, intense
posture and activities in movements of short
performance of endurance-trained duration
endurance muscles
activities

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO INCREASE MUSCLE SIZE,

STRENGTH, AND ENDURANCE
Anabolic Sterods, Growth Hormones, and Heat production are the factors that
contributes the muscle size, strength, and endurance.
➢ Anabolic steroids help build muscle tissue and increase body mass or muscle size
by acting like the body's natural male hormone, testosterone. They can actually
increase protein breakdown during the muscular stress that occurs with intense
athletic training, increase fluid and electrolyte retention, or produce an increase in
body weight.
➢ Growth Hormones increases muscle strength by enhancing muscle mass without
affecting contractile force or fibre composition type. Growth hormones stimulates
whole-body protein accretion with protein synthesis occurring in muscular and
extra-muscular sites.
➢ Heat production by this factor the rate of metabolism in skeletal muscle differs
before and during exercise. Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an
important by-product of muscle metabolism.

SOURCES OF ATP IN SKELETAL MUSCLE

Sources of ATP in Skeletal Muscle

Pathway Creatine Anaerobic Aerobic
Phosphate Respiration Respiration
Energy source Creatine Glucose Glucose, fatty acids,
Phosphate amino acids
Oxygen required No No Yes
ATP Yield 1 per creatine 2 per glucose Up to 36 per
phosphate molecule glucose molecule
Duration of Up to 10 Up to 3 minutes Hours
energy supply seconds
Type of work Moderate Extreme exercise Resting and all
supported exercise and exercise
extreme
exercise