NEUROLOGICAL

PHYSICAL THERAPY
Dr. Nazeer Ahmad
Assistant Professor
Rashid Latif College of Physical Therapy
 COURSE DESCRIPTION
• MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY REGARDING NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM
• Brain, Spinal cord, CNS Support Structures, Neurons, PNS and Spinal Level Reflexes
• NEUROLOGICAL EXAMINATION:
• History, System review and Test and measures
• INTERVENTIONS:
• Introduction to Theories of Neurological Rehabilitation
– Remediation & facilitation approaches
– Bobath-NDT
– Motor relearning program(MRP)
– Kabat, Knott, Voss (PNF)
– Constraint induced movement therapy (CIMT)
• Motor Control / Motor Learning Approach, Neural plasticity/ adoptability, Balance, Role of
sensory system, Skill acquisition, Postural Control, Mobility Function, Task-Related Training
Approach, Compensatory Training Approach and Normal Reach, Grasp and Manipulation
• `
• NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTIONS
• CVA (Stroke), Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), Spinal Cord Injury
(SCI), Degenerative Diseases (Progressive CNS disorders),
Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), Post Polio
Syndrome (PPS), Cerebellar Disorders, Vestibular Disorders,
Cranial Nerves Disorders and Poly Neuropathies
• NEUROMUSCULAR DISORDERS
• CASE HISTORIES
Principles of assessment and outcome measures,
Documentation in SOAP notes format, Evidence based
neurological Physical Therapy Treatment protocols
 RECOMMENDED TEXT
BOOKS:
• physical rehabilitation, susan b. o'sullivan
• Neurological Physiotherapy Bases of evidence for practice
Treatment and management of patients described by
specialist clinicians by Cecily Partridge
• Neurological Physiotherapy A problem-solving approach By
Susan Edwards, second edition.
• Neurologic examination By Robert j. Schwartzman , first
edition
 Anatomy of the Brain

Overview
• The human brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all
functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and
embodies the essence of the mind and soul.
• Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many
things governed by the brain.
• Protected within the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and brainstem.
• The brainstem acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and
cerebellum to the spinal cord.
• The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell,
touch, taste, and hearing - often many at one time.
• It assembles the messages in a way that has meaning for us, and can store
that information in our memory. The brain controls our thoughts,
memory and speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the function
of many organs within our body.
• It also determines how we respond to stressful situations (such as taking
a test, losing a job, or suffering an illness) by regulating our heart and
breathing rate
 Nervous system
• The nervous system is divided into
 Central system
 Peripheral systems
• The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal
cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that
branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the
brain.
• The PNS includes the autonomic nervous system, which controls vital
functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and secretion of
hormones.
 Skull
• The purpose of the bony skull is to protect the brain from injury .
• The skull is formed from 8 bones that fuse together along suture lines.
• These bones include the frontal, parietal (2), temporal (2), sphenoid,
occipital and ethmoid .
The face is formed from 14 paired bones: the maxilla, zygoma, nasal,
palatine, lacrimal, inferior nasal conchae, mandible, and vomer.
Inside the skull are three distinct areas: anterior fossa, middle fossa,
and posterior fossa .
• Similar to cables coming out the back of a computer, all the arteries, veins
and nerves exit the base of the skull through holes, called foramina. The
big hole in the middle (foramen magnum) is where the spinal cord exits.
 The inside of the skull is divided into three areas called the
anterior, middle, and posterior fossae.

•
 Brain
• The brain is composed of the

 cerebrum

 cerebellum

 brainstem

 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right
and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch,
vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and
fine control of movement.
 The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to
coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance.
• The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
It acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and
cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic
functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature,
wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing,
vomiting, and swallowing. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves
originate in the brainstem.
• The surface of the cerebrum has a folded appearance called the cortex.
• The cortex contains about 70% of the 100 billion nerve cells.
• The nerve cell bodies color the cortex grey-brown giving it its name –
gray matter.
• Beneath the cortex are long connecting fibers between neurons,
called axons, which make up the white matter.
 Deep structures
• Hypothalamus - is located in the floor of the third ventricle and is the master
control of the autonomic system. It plays a role in controlling behaviors such
as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual response. It also regulates body
temperature, blood pressure, emotions, and secretion of hormones.
• Pituitary gland - lies in a small pocket of bone at the skull base called the
sella turcica. The pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the
brain by the pituitary stalk. Known as the “master gland,” it controls other
endocrine glands in the body. It secretes hormones that control sexual
development, promote bone and muscle growth, respond to stress, and fight
disease.
• Pineal gland - is located behind the third ventricle. It helps regulate the
body’s internal clock and circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin. It has
some role in sexual development.
• Thalamus - serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes
and goes to the cortex . It plays a role in pain sensation, attention,
alertness and memory.

• Basal ganglia - includes the caudate, putamen and globus pallidus. These
nuclei work with the cerebellum to coordinate fine motions, such as
fingertip movements.

• Limbic system - is the center of our emotions, learning, and memory.

Included in this system are the cingulate gyri, hypothalamus, amygdala
(emotional reactions) and hippocampus (memory).
•
 Meninges
• The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by three layers of
tissue called meninges. From the outermost layer inward they are: the
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
• The dura mater is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside of the
skull; its two layers, the periosteal and meningeal dura, are fused and separate
only to form venous sinuses.
• The dura creates little folds or compartments. There are two special dural folds,
the falx and the tentorium.
• The falx separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain and the tentorium
separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
• The arachnoid mater is a thin, web-like membrane that covers the entire brain.
The arachnoid is made of elastic tissue. The space between the dura and
arachnoid membranes is called the subdural space.
• The pia mater hugs the surface of the brain following its folds and
grooves. The pia mater has many blood vessels that reach deep into the
brain. The space between the arachnoid and pia is called the
subarachnoid space. It is here where the cerebrospinal fluid bathes and
cushions the brain.
 Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid

• The brain has hollow fluid-filled cavities called ventricles . Inside the ventricles is a
ribbon-like structure called the choroid plexus that makes clear colorless
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• CSF flows within and around the brain and spinal cord to help cushion it from
injury.
• This circulating fluid is constantly being absorbed and replenished.
• There are two ventricles deep within the cerebral hemispheres called
the lateral ventricles.
• They both connect with the third ventricle through a separate
opening called the foramen of Monro.
• The third ventricle connects with the fourth ventricle through a long narrow tube
called the aqueduct of Sylvius. From the fourth ventricle, CSF flows into the
subarachnoid space where it bathes and cushions the brain. CSF is recycled (or
absorbed) by special structures in the superior sagittal sinus called arachnoid villi.
• A balance is maintained between the amount of CSF that is absorbed and
the amount that is produced. A disruption or blockage in the system can
cause a build up of CSF, which can cause enlargement of the ventricles
(hydrocephalus) or cause a collection of fluid in the spinal cord
(syringomyelia).
 Blood supply
• Blood is carried to the brain by two paired arteries, the internal carotid
arteries and the vertebral arteries .
The internal carotid arteries supply most of the cerebrum
• The vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum, brainstem, and the
underside of the cerebrum.
• After passing through the skull, the right and left vertebral arteries
join together to form the basilar artery.
The basilar artery and the internal carotid arteries
“communicate” with each other at the base of the brain
called the Circle of Willis . The communication between the
internal carotid and vertebral-basilar systems is an important safety
feature of the brain .
If one of the major vessels becomes
blocked, it is possible for collateral blood flow to come
across the Circle of Willis and prevent brain damage.
. The common carotid artery courses up the neck and divides into the internal and external carotid arteries.
The brain’s anterior circulation is fed by the internal
carotid arteries (ICA) and the posterior circulation is fed by the vertebral arteries. The two systems connect
at the Circle of Willis (green circle

• .
• The venous circulation of the brain is very different than the rest of the body. Usually
arteries and veins run together as they supply and drain specific areas of the body.
• So one would think there would be a pair of vertebral veins and internal carotid
veins.
• However, this is not the case. The major vein collectors are integrated into the dura
to form venous sinuses - not to be confused with the air sinuses in the face and
nasal region.
• The venous sinuses collect the blood from the brain and pass it to the internal
jugular veins.
• The superior and inferior sagittal sinuses drain the cerebrum, the cavernous sinuses
drains the anterior skull base.
• All sinuses eventually drain to the sigmoid sinuses, which exit the skull as the jugular
veins.
• The two jugular veins are the only drainage of the brain.
 Top view of the circle of Willis. The internal carotid and vertebral-basilar systems are joined by the
anterior communicating and posterior communicating arteries.

•
 . Three quarter view of the dural covering of the brain depicts the two major dural folds, the falx and
tentorium along with the venous sinuses.

•
 Cells of the brain

• The brain is made up of two types of cells: nerve cells (neurons) and glia cells.

• Nerve cells
• There are many sizes and shapes of neurons, but all consist of a cell body, dendrites and
an axon. The neuron conveys information through electrical and chemical signals. Try to
picture electrical wiring in your home. An electrical circuit is made up of numerous wires
connected in such a way that when a light switch is turned on, a light bulb will beam. A
neuron that is excited will transmit its energy to neurons within its vicinity.
• Neurons transmit their energy, or “talk”, to each other across a tiny gap called a synapse.
• A neuron has many arms called dendrites, which act like antennae picking up messages
from other nerve cells. These messages are passed to the cell body, which determines if
the message should be passed along.
• . Important messages are passed to the end of the axon where sacs containing
neurotransmitters open into the synapse. The neurotransmitter molecules cross the synapse
and fit into special receptors on the receiving nerve cell, which stimulates that cell to pass
on the message.
 Glia cells
• Glia (Greek word meaning glue) are the cells of the brain that provide neurons
with nourishment, protection, and structural support. There are about 10 to 50
times more glia than nerve cells and are the most common type of cells involved
in brain tumors
 Astroglia or astrocytes transport nutrients to neurons, hold neurons in place,
digest parts of dead neurons, and regulate the blood brain barrier.
 Oligodendroglia cells provide insulation (myelin) to neurons.

 Ependymal cells line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid

(CSF).
 Microglia digest dead neurons and pathogens
•
 Part I:

Lobes, the Cerebral Cortex, and Cortical Regions of the

Brain
 Objectives:
• Students will be able to describe the general structure of the
Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex.

• Students will be able to identify the Cerebrum, the Lobes of

the Brain, the Cerebral Cortex, and its major regions/divisions.

• Students will be able to describe the primary functions of

the Lobes and the Cortical Regions of the Brain.
 Cerebrum -The largest division of the brain. It is
divided into two hemispheres, each of which is
divided into four lobes.

Cerebrum
Cerebrum

Cerebellum

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of gray
matter making up the superficial aspect of the
cerebrum.

Cerebral Cortex

Cerebral Cortex

http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-6.tif.jpg
Cerebral Features:
• Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain.

• Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri

– Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal
Lobe

• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large

regions/lobes of the brain
– Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres

– Transverse Fissure – Separates the Cerebrum from the

Cerebellum

– Sylvian/Lateral Fissure – Divides the Temporal Lobe from the

Frontal and Parietal Lobes
 Gyri (ridge)

Sulci
(groove)

Fissure
(deep groove)

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
Specific Sulci/Fissures:

Central Sulcus

Longitudinal Fissure

Sylvian/Lateral
Fissure

Transverse Fissure

http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg http://www.dalbsoutss.eq.edu.au/Sheepbrains_Me/human_brain.gif
 Lobes of the Brain (4)
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal

http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the fifth lobe. It is located deep
to the Temporal Lobe.
 Lobes of the Brain - Frontal
• The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Frontal Bone of the skull.
• It plays an integral role in the following functions/actions:
- Memory Formation
- Emotions
- Decision Making/Reasoning
- Personality

(Investigation: Phineas
Investigation (PhineasGage)
Gage)

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

 Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus) – Cortical site
involved with controlling movements of the body.
• Broca’s Area – Controls facial neurons, speech, and language
comprehension. Located on Left Frontal Lobe.
– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to comprehend speech, but
the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak and form words.

• Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies

* Desired Effects: * Possible Side Effects:
- Diminished Rage - Epilepsy
- Decreased Aggression - Poor Emotional Responses
- Poor Emotional - Perseveration (Uncontrolled, repetitive
Responses actions, gestures, or words)

• Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for sensation of Smell

 Investigation (Phineas Gage)

Primary Motor
Cortex/ Precentral
Gyrus

Broca’s Area

Orbitofrontal
Cortex

Olfactory Bulb

Regions

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

 Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe
• The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Parietal Bone of the skull.

• It plays a major role in the following functions/actions:

- Senses and integrates sensation(s)

- Spatial awareness and perception

(Proprioception - Awareness of
body/ body parts in space and
in relation to each other)

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

 Parietal Lobe - Cortical Regions

• Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral

Gyrus) – Site involved with processing of tactile
and proprioceptive information.

• Somatosensory Association Cortex - Assists

with the integration and interpretation of
sensations relative to body position and orientation
in space. May assist with visuo-motor coordination.

• Primary Gustatory Cortex – Primary site

involved with the interpretation of the sensation of
Taste.
Primary
Somatosensory
Cortex/
Postcentral Gyrus

Somatosensory
Association Cortex

Primary
Gustatory Cortex

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Occipital Lobe
• The Occipital Lobe of the
Brain is located deep to the
Occipital Bone of the Skull.

• Its primary function is the

processing, integration,
interpretation, etc. of VISION and
visual stimuli.

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

 Occipital Lobe – Cortical Regions

• Primary Visual Cortex – This is the primary

area of the brain responsible for sight -
recognition of size, color, light, motion,
dimensions, etc.

• Visual Association Area – Interprets

information acquired through the primary visual
cortex.
Primary Visual
Cortex

Visual
Association Area

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Temporal Lobe
• The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of the
brain, deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.

• They play an integral role

in the following functions:
- Hearing
- Organization/Comprehension
of language
- Information Retrieval
(Memory and Memory Formation)

Modified from:
http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
 Temporal Lobe – Cortical Regions
• Primary Auditory Cortex – Responsible for hearing

• Primary Olfactory Cortex – Interprets the sense of

smell once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory
bulbs. (Not visible on the superficial cortex)

• Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension.

Located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
- Wernicke’s Aphasia – Language comprehension
is inhibited. Words and sentences are not clearly
understood, and sentence formation may be inhibited or
non-sensical.
Primary
Auditory Cortex

Wernike’s Area

Primary Olfactory
Cortex (Deep)
Conducted from Olfactory Bulb

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg Regions

• Arcuate Fasciculus - A white matter tract that connects Broca’s Area and
Wernicke’s Area through the Temporal, Parietal and Frontal Lobes. Allows
for coordinated, comprehensible speech. Damage may result in:
- Conduction Aphasia - Where auditory comprehension and speech
articulation are preserved, but people find it difficult to repeat heard speech.

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

Click the Region to see its Name

Korbinian Broadmann - Learn about the man who divided the Cerebral Cortex into 52 distinct regions:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
 Lobes and Structures of the Brain
A.
B. G.

F.

C.

E.
D.

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
 Lobes and Structures of the Brain

A. Central Sulcus
B. Frontal Lobe

C. Sylvian/Lateral Fissure
A. (groove) G.
D. Temporal Lobe B.
E. Transverse Fissure F.

F. Occipital Lobe
G. Parietal Lobe C. (groove)
D. E.
(groove)

http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
 A. K.
J.
Cortical Regions

B. I.

H.

G.

C.

D.
E. F.
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
A. Primary Motor Cortex/ Precentral Gyrus
B. Broca’s Area
C. Orbitofrontal Cortex
Cortical Regions
D. Primary Olfactory Cortex (Deep)
E. Primary Auditory Cortex K.
A. J.
F. Wernike’s Area
I.
G. Primary Visual Cortex
H. Visual B.
H.
Association Area
I. Primary Gustatory Cortex G.
J. Somatosensory C.
Association Cortex
K. Primary Somatosensory D.
Cortex/ Postcentral Gyrus E. F.
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
 Copyright: Gary Larson

Q: Assuming this comical situation was factually

accurate, what Cortical Region of the brain would
these doctors be stimulating?
A: Primary Motor Cortex

* This graphic representation of the regions of the Primary Motor Cortex and
Primary Sensory Cortex is one example of a HOMUNCULUS:
Homunculus
* Note: Homunculus literally means “little person,” and may refer to one whose body shape is
governed by the cortical area devoted to that body region.

Q: What do you notice about the proportions

depicted in the aforementioned homunculus?
A: They are not depicted in the same scale representative of
the human body.

Q: What is meant by depicting these body parts

in such outrageous proportions?
A: These outrageous proportions depict the cortical area
devoted to each structure.
- Ex: Your hands require many intricate movements and
sensations to function properly. This requires a great deal of
cortical surface area to control these detailed actions. Your
back is quite the opposite, requiring limited cortical area to
carry out its actions and functions, or detect sensation. Back-Hom.
 Further Investigation
Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad worker in the 19th century living in
Cavendish, Vermont. One of his jobs was to set off explosive charges in large rock in
order to break them into smaller pieces. On one of these instances, the detonation
occurred prior to his expectations, resulting in a 42 inch long, 1.2 inch wide, metal rod
to be blown right up through his skull and out the top. The rod entered his skull below
his left cheek bone and exited after passing through the anterior frontal lobe of his
brain.

Frontal
 Remarkably, Gage never lost consciousness, or quickly regained it (there is still some
debate), suffered little to no pain, and was awake and alert when he reached a doctor
approximately 45 minutes later. He had a normal pulse and normal vision, and
following a short period of rest, returned to work several days later. However, he was
not unaffected by this accident.

http://www.sruweb.com/~walsh/gage5.jpg

Learn more about Phineas Gage: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage

Frontal
Q: Recalling what you have just learned regarding the frontal lobe, what
possible problems or abnormalities may Gage have presented with
subsequent to this type of injury (remember the precise location of the rod
through his brain)?
A: Gage’s personality, reasoning, and capacity to understand and follow social
norms had been diminished or destroyed. He illustrated little to no interest in
hobbies or other involvements that at one time he cared for greatly. ‘After the
accident, Gage became a nasty, vulgar, irresponsible vagrant. His former
employer, who regarded him as "the most efficient and capable foreman in
their employ previous to his injury," refused to rehire him because he was so
different.’

Q: It is suggested that Gage’s injury inspired the development of what at one

time was a widely used medical procedure. What might this procedure be, and
how does it relate to Gage’s injury?
A: The frontal lobotomy. This has been used with the intention to diminish
aggression and rage in mental patients, but generally results in drastic
personality changes, and an inability to relate socially. This procedure is
largely frowned upon today, with the development of neurological drugs as
treatments.
Frontal
 Resources
Images:
• http://www.dalbsoutss.eq.edu.au/Sheepbrains_Me/human_brain.gif
• http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
• http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-6.tif.jpg
• http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
• http://www.math.tu-dresden.de/~belov/brain/motorcor2.gif
• Larson, Gary. The Far Side.

Phineas Gage:
• http://www.sruweb.com/~walsh/gage5.jpg
• http://soma.npa.uiuc.edu/courses/bio303/Image7.jpg
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage
• http://science-education.nih.gov/nihHTML/ose/snapshots/multimedia/ritn/Gage/
Broken_brain1.html
Suggested Supplementary Materials:
1. Skeleton Outline for note-taking.
2. Multiple Diagrams of the Human Brain.
* Students will label features/lobes
* Students will color-code cortical regions
3. Worksheets (matching, short answer, etc.), centered around the functions of the
lobes and regions of the cerebrum.
4. A more in depth article on Phineas Gage. Read and discuss as a class - time
permitting.
Suggested Assessments:
1. Class/individual questioning throughout (especially at the conclusion of) the
presentation.
2. Homework worksheets - discussed or collected in class.
3. Students will take a test on the nervous system in which they will be responsible
for the structures, lobes, regions, functions, etc.
 Massachusetts State Biology Standards
Broad Concept: There is a relationship between structure and
function in organ systems of humans.
4.1 Explain how major organ systems in humans (e.g.,
kidney, muscle, lung) have functional units (e.g., nephron,
sarcome, alveoli) with specific anatomy that perform the
function of that organ system.
4.2 Describe how the function of individual systems within
humans are integrated to maintain a homeostatic balance in
the body.

* Note: This PowerPoint has been developed for Juniors and

Seniors enrolled in Anatomy and Physiology Courses. Thus, the
detail of the concepts and information contained herein is far
greater than required by the state Biology standards listed above.
 National Standards:
THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANISMS:
• Multicellular animals have nervous systems that generate behavior. Nervous systems are formed
from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up
nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and
inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals
and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.
• Organisms have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli. Responses to
external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism's own species and others, as well as
environmental changes; these responses either can be innate or learned. The broad patterns of
behavior exhibited by animals have evolved to ensure reproductive success. Animals often live in
unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with
uncertainty and change. Plants also respond to stimuli.
• Like other aspects of an organism's biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.
Behaviors often have an adaptive logic when viewed in terms of evolutionary principles.
• Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology,
and anthropology.