Central Nervous system

•The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

•The brain and spinal cord are both housed within a protective
triple-layered membrane called the meninges.

•The brain is the most complex organ in the body and uses 20
percent of the total oxygen we breathe in.

•The brain consists of an estimated 100 billion neurons, with

each connected to thousands more.

•The brain can be divided into four main lobes: temporal,

parietal, occipital and frontal.
Divisions of the central nervous system

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Divisions of the central nervous system
• The central nervous system is made up of the brain
and spinal cord.
• The brain constitutes about one- fiftieth of the
body weight and lies within the cranial cavity.
• The brain parts are
– Cerebrum
– Cerebellum
– The brain stem (midbrain, pons,
medulla oblongata)

The average brain weight of the adult male was 1336 gr; for the adult female 1198
gr. With increasing age, brain weight decreases by 2.7 gr in males, and by 2.2 gr in
females per year. 3
 Brain regions
Basal ganglia: involved in the control of voluntary motor movements, procedural
learning, and decisions about which motor activities to carry out. Diseases that
affect this area include Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

Cerebellum: mostly involved in precise motor control, but also in language and
attention. If the cerebellum is damaged, the primary symptom is disrupted motor
control, known as ataxia.

Broca’s area: this small area on the left side of the brain (sometimes on the right in
left-handed individuals) is important in language processing. When damaged, an
individual finds it difficult to speak but can still understand speech. Stuttering is
sometimes associated with an underactive Broca’s area.

Corpus callosum: a broad band of nerve fibers that join the left and right
hemispheres. It is the largest white matter structure in the brain and allows the two
hemispheres to communicate. Dyslexic children have smaller corpus callosums; left-
handed people, ambidextrous people, and musicians typically have larger ones.
Medulla oblongata: extending below the skull, it is involved in
involuntary functions, such as vomiting, breathing, sneezing, and
maintaining the correct blood pressure.

Hypothalamus: sitting just above the brain stem and roughly the
size of an almond, the hypothalamus secretes a number of
neurohormones and influences body temperature control, thirst,
and hunger.

Thalamus: positioned in the center of the brain, the thalamus

receives sensory and motor input and relays it to the rest of the
cerebral cortex. It is involved in the regulation of consciousness,
sleep, awareness, and alertness.

Amygdala: two almond-shaped nuclei deep within the temporal

lobe. They are involved in decision-making, memory, and
emotional responses; particularly negative emotions.
• Cerebrum:
– This is the largest part of the brain and it occupies the
anterior and middle cranial fossae.
– Cerebrum is made up of with two cerebral hemispheres
and their cortices (outer layer of grey matter) and
underlying regions of white matter.
– The cerebral cortex is the outer covering of gray matter
over the hemispheres.

Cerebral cortex

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• Cerebrum:
– Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into lobes
which take the names of the bones of the cranium under
which they lie:
• frontal
• parietal
• temporal
• Occipital

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• Cerebrum:
Functions of the cerebrum
– Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of
speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
– Parietal Lobe- associated with movement,
orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
– Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
– Temporal Lobe- associated with perception
and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and
speech

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The frontal lobe is located in the forward part of the brain. The frontal lobe is
involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.
It contains the motor cortex, which is involved in planning and coordinating
movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive
functioning; and Broca’s area, which is essential for language production.

The brain’s parietal lobe is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is
involved in processing information from the body’s senses. It contains the
somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from
across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head (temporal means “near the
temples”), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of
language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory
information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke’s area, important for
speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to
Broca’s area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke’s
area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it.

The occipital lobe is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary
visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.
Damage to either Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area can result in
language deficits. The types of deficits are very different,
however, depending on which area is affected.
• The brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
– Brain stem is the stem-like part of the base of the brain that is
connected to the spinal cord.
– This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions
such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
– Medulla oblongata directly controls breathing,
blood flow, and other essential functions.

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• Cerebellum
– The cerebellum is situated behind the pons
and immediately below the posterior portion of the
cerebrum
– It is ovoid in shape and has two hemispheres, separated by
a narrow median strip called the vermis.

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• Cerebellum
Functions of cerebellum
– The cerebellum is concerned with the coordination of voluntary
muscular movement, posture and balance. It coordinates activities
associated with the maintenance of the balance and equilibrium of
the body.
– It is also involved in certain cognitive functions, such as language.
– The cerebellum plays a major role in adapting and fine- tuning motor
programs to make accurate movements through a trial-and-error
process.
– Damage to the cerebellum results in clumsy uncoordinated muscular
movement, staggering gait and inability to carry out smooth, steady,
precise movements.

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White and gray matter
The CNS can be roughly divided into white and gray matter. As a very general rule, the
brain consists of an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner area housing tracts of
white matter.

Both types of tissue contain glial cells, which protect and support neurons. White
matter mostly consists of axons (nerve projections) and oligodendrocytes — a type of
glial cell — whereas gray matter consists predominantly of neurons.

Cranial nerves
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and pass
through holes in the skull rather than traveling along the spinal cord. These nerves
collect and send information between the brain and parts of the body – mostly the
neck and head.
Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and optic nerves arise from the forebrain and are
considered part of the central nervous system:

Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I): transmit information about odors from the upper
section of the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the base of the brain.
Optic nerves (cranial nerve II): carry visual information from the retina to the
primary visual nuclei of the brain. Each optic nerve consists of around 1.7 million
nerve fibers.
• Spinal cord
– Spinal cord is continuous above
with the medulla oblongata.
– It is a long, thin bundle of
nervous tissue.
– It is approximately 45 cm long
and is about the thickness of the
little finger.
– The spinal cord receives and
transmits electric signals
throughout the enter body.

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The spinal cord carries information from the brain to the rest of the body.

The spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information
between the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks.

From the brainstem, where the spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves enter
the cord.
Along its length, it connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
that run in from the skin, muscles, and joints.

Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine to the muscles and sensory
information travels from the sensory tissues — such as the skin — toward the spinal
cord and finally up to the brain.

The spinal cord contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses, such as the
involuntary movement your arm might make if your finger was to touch a flame.
The circuits within the spine can also generate more complex movements such as
walking. Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can coordinate all of
the muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a cat is separated from its
spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it will start spontaneously
walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is only required to stop and start the
process, or make changes if, for instance, an object appears in your path.
• Spinal cord
• The white matter tracts in the spinal cord are highways for
nerve impulse propagation. Sensory input travels along these
tracts toward the brain (afferent neurons), and motor output
travels from the brain along these tracts toward skeletal
muscles and other effector tissues (efferent neurons).
• The gray matter of the spinal cord receives and integrates
incoming and outgoing information.

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Glial cells
• Glia cells, also called glial or neuroglia, are non-neuronal
cells in the CNS and PNS.
• The neurones of the central nervous system are
supported by four types of non-excitable glial cells that
make up a quarter to a half of the volume of brain tissue.
• The primary role of glial cells are to provide physical
support for neurons.
• Four major types of glial cells in the CNS
– Astrocyte
– Oligodendrocyte
– Ependymal cell
– Microglial cell

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Glial cells
– Astrocyte: These cells form the main supporting tissue of
the central nervous system. Astrocytes are found in large
numbers adjacent to blood vessels and neurons.
Astrocytes are essential for the formation and
maintenance of the blood–brain barrier (BBB).
– Oligodendrocyte: These cells are smaller than astrocytes
and they are the myelinating cells of the central nervous
system. The primary function of the oligodendorcyte is to
provide and maintain the myelin sheaths around axons.

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Glial cells
– Ependymal cell: Ependymal cells line the cavities of the
CNS. Ependymal cells are responsible for the production of
Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) and are important barriers
between the cerebral spinal fluid and the brain
extracellular space.
– Microglial cell: Microglial cells are rapidly activated in the
CNS in response to injury. These cells are also very
important in presenting antigens to lymphocytes in
response to infection.

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• Functions of cerebrospinal fluid
– protects the brain and spinal cord.
– maintains a uniform pressure around these delicate
structures.
– acts as a cushion and shock absorber between the brain
and the cranial bones.
– the brain and spinal cord moist and there may be
interchange of substances between CSF and nerve cells,
such as nutrients and waste products.

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