SPECIAL SENSES

By
Shakil Ahmed
Faculty
Royal Bolan College Of Nursing and
Health Sciences
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

Describe the structure and function of ear

Discuss the transmission of sound through the ear
Describe the physiology of hearing and balance
Describe eye in terms of:
structure related to vision
accessory structure
OBJECTIVES

Discuss image formation by describing refraction

accommodation and constriction of the pupil
Explain the process of dark adaptation and light adaptation
 BASIC MECHANICS OF
HEARING
Hearing is the process by which humans use their ears to detect and
perceive sounds. Ears are important for hearing and for controlling a sense of
position and balance. Each ear is divided into three sections:

The outer ear.

The middle ear.
The inner ear.
CONTI….

The middle and inner parts of the ear are located in hollow spaces on either
side of the head within the temporal bones of the skull.
To hear sound, the ear has to do three basic things:
Direct the sound waves into the hearing part of the ear.
Sense the fluctuations in air pressure.
Translate these fluctuations into an electrical signal that the brain can understand.
THE OUTER EAR

The external part of the ear consists of the pinna and ear lobe. 

The pinna or ear shell is the shell-like part of the external ear, and it is made of
cartilage and skin. The pinna directs sound waves from the outside into the
external auditory canal (ear canal), which in turn channels sound waves to the
tympanic membrane (known as the eardrum), causing it to vibrate. The tympanic
membrane is a thin, semi-transparent, flexible membrane that separates the outer
and middle ear.
The outer ear functions to collect sound (acoustic energy), and funnel it to the
eardrum (tympanic membrane).
CONTI…
 THE MIDDLE EAR
The middle ear is an air-filled space that contains three tiny bones known
as ossicles which transmit sound. The bones are known individually
(according to their shapes) as the:

Malleus (hammer).
Incus (anvil).
Stapes (stirrup).
 CONTI..
Sound waves that reach the tympanic membrane
cause it to vibrate. In turn, the eardrum sets into
motion the first ear bone, which transmits the
motion to the second bone (the incus). Finally, the
third bone (the stapes) works like a piston to amplify
and transform the sound energy into mechanical
energy.
 CONTI…
This mechanical energy is then transmitted from the
stapes to the hearing part (cochlea) of the inner ear
via the oval window (a thin membrane between the
middle and inner ear).
The middle ear is connected to the back of the nose
(nasopharynx) by the Eustachian tube.
 THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE
The Eustachian tube is a narrow tube that connects
the middle ear to the back of the nose and throat.
During swallowing, the Eustachian tube opens up to
allow air into the middle ear, so that air pressure on
either side of the tympanic membrane is the same.
In some situations when there is a sudden change
in air pressure
CONTI…

(forexample – during take off and landing in a

plane), the pressure in the middle ear is not the
same as the outside air pressure. This can make
the eardrum bulge or retract and less able to
transmit vibrations, causing temporary hearing
problems. By swallowing or “popping” the ears, the
pressure can again be equalized.
THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE
 THE INNER EAR
The delicate membranous inner ear (labyrinth) is
enclosed and protected by a bony chamber that is
referred to as the bony labyrinth. The inner ear
contains two main structures:
 CONTI…
The cochlea, in the shape of a snail, which is involved in hearing. The
round window (fenestra cochlea) is a membrane that connects the
cochlea to the middle ear. It helps dampen the vibrations in the cochlea.
The vestibular system (consisting of the semicircular canals, saccule
and utricle), which is responsible for maintaining balance and a sense
of position.
THE INNER EAR
 THE COCHLEA
The cochlea is filled with fluid and contains the organ of Corti – a
structure that contains thousands of specialised sensory hair cells
with projections called cilia. 

The cochlea has approximately 30,000 hearing nerve endings in the

hair cells. The hair cells in the large end of the cochlea respond to
very high-pitched sounds, and those in the small end (and throughout
much of the rest of the cochlea) respond to low-pitched sounds. 
 THE COCHLEA
These hair cells, and the nerve that connects them to the brain, are
susceptible to damage from a variety of causes.
The vibrations transmitted from the middle ear cause tiny waves to
form in the inner ear fluid, where they are interpreted as sound. As the
stapes pushes back and forth against the cochlea, it compresses the
fluid to create waves in the fluid-filled compartments which make the
cilia vibrate. 
 THE COCHLEA
Depending on the characteristics of the waves, specific nerve
messages (impulses) are created. The hair cells then convert
these vibrations into nerve impulses, or signals, which are sent
via the auditory nerve (the hearing branch of the eighth cranial
nerve) to the base of the brain (brainstem) and the brain where
they are interpreted as sound.
THE COCHLEA
 THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM

The vestibular system (the semicircular canals, saccule and utricle)

The semicircular canals also contain fluid and hair cells, but these hair
cells are responsible for detecting movement rather than sound. As the
head moves, fluid within the semicircular canals (which sit at right
angles to each other) also moves. This fluid motion is detected by the
hair cells, which then send nerve impulses about the position of the head
and body to the brain to allow balance to be maintained. The utricle and
saccule work in a similar way to the semicircular canals, allowing you
to sense your body’s position relative to gravity and make postural
adjustments as required.
The semicircular canals, saccule and utricle
LABEL ALL THE PART OF EAR
THE EYE
STRUCTURE OF EYE

The eye is one of the major sensory organs in the human body. It is
responsible for vision, color differentiation (the human eye can differentiate
between approximately 10 million colors)  and maintaining the biological
clock of the human body. 
EYE STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
The human eyes is the most complicated sense organ in the human
body, with a several parts fixed together form a spherical structure.
Every part of the human eye is mainly responsible for a certain
action. The structure of a human eye can be broadly classified into
External structure and internal structure.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

The parts of the eye that are visible externally comprise of the
external structure of the eye-
Sclera: It is a tough and thick white sheath that protects the
inner parts of the eye. We know it as the ‘White of the eye’.
CONTI…..
Conjunctiva: It is a thin transparent membrane that is spread
across the sclera. It keeps the eyes moist and clear by secreting
small amounts of mucus and tears.
 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

Cornea: It is the transparent layer of skin that is spread over the pupil
and the iris. The main role of the cornea is to refract the light that
enters the eyes.
CONTI…
Iris: It is a pigmented layer of tissues that makes up the colored
portion of the eye. It’s primary function is to control the size of the
pupil, depending on the amount of light entering it.
CONTI…
Pupil: It is the small opening located at the middle of the Iris. It
allows light to come in.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

The internal structure of the eye includes the following parts:

Lens: It is a biconvex, transparent and adjustable structure that
focuses light to the retina, hence forming images on it.
Retina: It is the layer present at the back of the eye where all the
images are formed. It is the third and inner coat of the eye which is
very sensitive towards light because of the presence of Photoreceptors.
The retina functions by converting the light rays into impulses and
sending the signals to the brain through the optic nerve.
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

Optic nerve: It is located at the end of the eyes, behind the retina.  The optic
nerve is mainly responsible for carrying all the nerve impulses from the
photoreceptors to the human brain without which vision would not be possible.
Aqueous humor: It is a watery fluid that is present in the area between the
lens and the cornea. It is responsible for the nourishment of both the lens and the
cornea.
Vitreous Humor: it is a transparent semi-solid, jelly-like substance that fills
the interior of the eyes. Its role is that it maintains the shape of the eye and also
causes refraction of light before it reaches the retina.
 ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE
OF EYE
Eye ball consists of three layers
Outer fibrous layer: Sclera, cornea and conjunctiva
Middle vascular layer: ciliary body, choroid and iris
Inner layer: retina
 OUTER FIBROUS LAYER:

It consists of following parts.

1. Sclera:
It is outermost supporting layer consists of thick membrane of tough fibrous connective tissue.
It covers 5/6 parts of eye ball.
It maintains the shape of eye and provide attachment to the extrinsic muscle of eye
 CONTI..
2. Cornea:
It is a thin transparent front part of sclera.
It forms a slight bulge at the front and covers an anterior 1/6 part of sclera.
Cornea is avascular and absorbs oxygen from air.
It refracts light to focus on retina.
 CONTI…
3. Conjunctiva:
It is a thin transparent layer that covers the cornea.
It is formed of single layer of stratified squamous epithelium
It protects the cornea.
 MIDDLE VASCULAR LAYER:

It consists of following parts:

1. Choroid:
It is thick vascular and pigmented layer situated below sclera.
The pigmented cells absorbs light and prevent it from being reflected.
The function of choroid is to provide nutrition and to prevent reflection of light.
 CONTI..
2. Ciliary body:

These are attached to choroid and present at the junction of sclera and cornea.
It consists of two sets of ciliary muscle and suspensory ligament.
Ciliary body is attached to lens and holds it in position
Its function is to change the shape of lens by contraction or relaxation of muscle
 CONTI..

3. Iris:
It is muscular, pigmented and opaque diaphragm which hangs in the eye ball in
front of lens.
It has small circular opening called pupil.
It has two types of muscles; circular and radial muscle. The movement of these
muscles control the size of pupil.
Pigment in iris gives color to eye.
Iris control the amount of light entering into eye by controlling the size of pupil.
 INNER LAYER:

It consists of photoreceptor cells and photo sensitive elements.

1. Retina:
Retina is innermost layer.
Neuroretina contains highly specialized photoreceptor nerve cells; rods and
cones
Each eye ball has 125 millions of rod cells and 7 millions of cone cells.
Small depression in retinal wall is called Fovea centralis which contains only
cone cells.
ROD CELL:
rods are sensors for perception of black to white shades
Night vision is almost rod vision.
It function in dim light
Contains a photosensitive pigment rhodopsin formed from
vitamin A.
CONE CELL:
Cones are sensors for perception of colors.
It functions in bright light and differentiate colors.
Contains a photosensitive pigment iodopsin.
 EYE LENS AND CHAMBERS

1. Eye Lens:
It is a large, flexible, transparent biconvex and fibrous crystalline body situated
behind iris.
Lens is enclosed in a transparent elastic capsule.
Ciliary muscles control the thickness of lens and its power of accommodation.
It forms the image of the object on retina.
Lens separates the eye ball into two chamber
CHAMBERS

I. Aqueous chamber
ii. Vitreous chamber
 AQUEOUS CHAMBER:

It is a smaller fluid filled chamber between cornea and lens.

It is filled with aqueous humour containing aminoacids, glucose,
ascorbic acid, hyaluronic acid and respiratory gases.
The aqueous humour nourishes the lens and cornea and refracts light
rays to focus on retina.
 VITREOUS CHAMBER

It is a larger fluid filled chamber between lens and retina.

It is filled with gelatinous vitreous humour containing salts and muco
proteins.
It supports retina and refracts light to focus on retina.
PROCESS OF VISION
1 Light bounces off an object and into your eye. It first enters the cornea, where the
light is refracted slightly.

2 The light then passes through a clear liquid called the aqueous humor.
3 It travels through the pupil which is surrounded by the colored part of the eye called
the iris, which controls the amount of light entering the eye.

4 The light then passed through the lens where it is refracted even more.
PROCESS OF VISION
5 It travels through the vitreous humor until it reaches the retina.

6 Photoreceptors within the retina (rods and cones) are excited by the light stimuli and
generate a nerve impulse.

7 The nerve impulse travels down the optic nerve to the area of the brain which
processes sight (the occipital lobe.)

8 The brain processes and interprets the information. It flips the information and
superimposes the images from both eyes.
LIGHT ADAPTATION
This occurs when we move from the dark into bright light.   The bright light
momentarily dazzles us and all we see is white light because the sensitivity of
the receptors is set to dim light.  Rods and cones are both stimulated and
large amounts of the photo pigment are broken down instantaneously,
producing a flood of signals resulting in the glare.
DARK ADAPTATION
Dark adaptation is essentially the reverse of light adaptation.  It occurs when
going from a well light area to a dark area.  Initially blackness is seen because
our cones cease functioning in low intensity light.  Also, all the rod pigments
have been bleached out due to the bright light and the rods are initially
nonfunctional.  Once in the dark, rhodopsin regenerates and the sensitivity of
the retina increases over time (this can take approximately one hour).  During
these adaptation process reflexive changes occur in the pupil size.
LABEL THE EYE