Backtracking

Definition
• According to Wiki

Backtracking can be defined as a general algorithmic

technique that considers searching every possible
combination in order to solve a computational
problem.
Practical Example – Maze Problem
 Formal Notion of Backtracking
• Desired Solution is represented as an 𝑛 −
𝒕𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆 (𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓) denoted by (𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 , …, 𝒙𝒏 )
where each 𝑥𝑖 are chosen from some finite set 𝑆𝑖 .

• Define a criterion function 𝑷(𝒙𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 , …, 𝒙𝒏).

• Aim is to seek some or all of the vectors (𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3,

…, 𝑥 𝑛 ) that maximize / minimize / satisfy 𝑃(𝑥1, 𝑥2,
𝑥3, …, 𝑥 𝑛 ).
 Backtracking approach
• Brute Force approach
– tests all the vectors to find those
vectors that satisfy 𝑃.
• Backtracking
– Minimizes the test cases by pruning search if a
solution that satisfies 𝑃 cannot be found further.
– Traces back to the most previous state and
searches an alternative path for a possible
solution vector.
 8-Queens Problem
Problem Definition

Given an (8 × 8) chess board, the problem is to

place 8 Queens on the board so that no two
Queens attack each other, (i.e.) no two Queens
are on the same row, same column or same
diagonal.
8-Queens Problem – Formal Definition
• Let (𝑖, 𝑗) represent a grid of the chess board
where, 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 8.
• Assume each queen 𝑄𝑖 is to be placed on
the
𝑖 𝑡 ℎ row. Here, 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 8.
• All solutions of the 8-Queens problem can
therefore be represented as a vector𝑃(𝑥1 ,
𝑥2 ,
𝑥 3, …, 𝑥8) where 𝑥𝑖 represents the column in
𝑡ℎ
Example of a Solution space
𝑄1
𝑄2
𝑄3
𝑄4

(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 ,𝒙𝟒 ) = (𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟏,

𝟑)
 How Backtracking works in 4-Queens
1 1 1

2 2

- Not possible to place the 3rd Queen

- Backtrack to the previous state

Note that a state refers to the board with current sub-set of Queens placed on the board.
 1 1 1

2 2

2
- We are unable to place the 4𝑡ℎQueen
3
- Backtracking to displace the 3𝑟 𝑑 Queen
 1 1 1

2 2

- Note that Queen 3 cannot be placed in either (3,3 or (3,4)

- Backtrack to the parent node.
 1 1

- Note that all possible positions of Queen 2 have been explored

- Backtrack to the parent node.
1 1 1

2 2

1
2

4
 Recursive Backtracking algorithm
procedure NQueens(𝑛, 𝑘)
integer X[1…n]
for 𝑙 ≔ 1 to 𝑛 do
if ( 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝑘, 𝑙)) then
{
𝑋[𝑘] = 𝑙;
if (𝑘 = 𝑛) then
print 𝑋[𝑙], 𝑙 = 1,2,
…,𝑛
else
NQueens(𝑛, 𝑘 + 1);
}
 Backtracking algorithm Contd..
procedure Place 𝑘, 𝑙
// Let (𝑗, 𝑋[𝑗]) represent the 𝑗 𝑡 ℎ Queen in
the
𝑋[𝑗]𝑡 ℎ column for 𝑗 = 1, 2, … , 𝑘 − 1.
forif𝑗 (≔(X[𝑗]
1 to=𝑘 𝑖)
− or
1 do
(𝑋 𝑗 = |𝑗 − 𝑘|) )
−𝑙
return false;
return
true;
Efficiency (𝑛!)
With n=4, T(n) = T(4) = 4! = 24
 Practice Problem
Consider an (𝑛 × 𝑛) chess board where (𝑖, 𝑗)
represents a grid on the chess board. The
problem is to place several queens on the board
so that each grid (𝑖, 𝑗) is covered/attacked/seen
by at least one queen. Write a recursive
backtracking algorithm to minimize the number
of queens required to cover all the grids.
 Reference
s
• Cormen, Thomas H.; Leirson, Charles E.; Rivest,
Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2009) Introduction to
Algorithms (3rd ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill.

• Ellis Horowitz, Sartaj Sahni: Fundamentals of

Computer Algorithms. Computer Science
Press 1978
•