Functions of drilling fluids:

¨ ·       Transport drilled cuttings and caving to the surface.

¨ ·       Suspend drilled cuttings and caving in the annulus when
circulation is stopped.
¨ ·       Control subsurface pressure.
¨ ·       Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string.
¨ ·       Support the walls of the well bore.
¨ ·       Help suspend the weight of the drill string and casing.
¨ ·       Deliver hydraulic energy upon the formation beneath the bit.
¨ ·       Provide a suitable medium for running wire line logs.
 
 The proper selection of drilling fluid must
be based on these major factors

¨ · Economics.
¨ · Available Make – up water.
¨ · Contaminants to be encountered.
¨ · Formation pressures to be encountered.
¨ · Types of formations to be penetrated.
¨ · Temperatures to be encountered.
¨ · Environmental considerations.
 
Drilling fluid side effect:
¨ ·       Damage to subsurface formations, especially those
may be production.
¨ ·       Corrosion of the drill string and casing.
¨ ·       Reduction of penetration rate.
¨ ·       Surge, swab and circulating pressure effects.
¨ ·       Loss of circulation.
¨ ·       Sticking of he drill string against the walls of the hole.
¨ ·       Erosion of the well bore.
¨ ·       Retention of undesirable solids by the drilling fluid.
·        Wear on pump parts.
¨ ·       Contamination of cement slurries.
¨ ·       Contamination of the natural environment.
 MUD PROPERTIES
¨ Mud weight
¨ The mud weight or specific gravity is a
key-factor in the control of bottom hole
pressures and hole stability. Increase of
mud weights, however, causes a
considerable reduction in penetration rate
and a significant increase in friction
losses (viscosity). The mud weight is
generally expressed as specific gravity in
kg/I
 MUD PROPERTIES cont.
Viscosity
¨ The viscosity of the mud is very important for the
optimization of various different mud functions.
¨ The viscosity is measured with two different instruments:
¨ The Marsh funnel and the Fann viscometer.
¨ THE MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY - expressed in seconds
per quart (946 ml) - is determined with very simple
equipment. The marsh funnel is used routinely on the rigs
to establish whether changes in the mud properties occur.
Further conclusions cannot be drawn from the marsh
funnel viscosity results.
¨ The Fann viscometer is a far more delicate instrument. The
cylinders rotated at 600 and 300 rpm respectively and
readings of the
 Cont. Viscosity
¨ Position of the bob are taken. Subsequently gel
values are determined
¨ by rotating at a low speed.
¨ The results of the fann viscometer test can be
expressed in two different ways: The Bingham
method by which Plastic Viscosity and Yield
Point are determined and the Power Law
method which results in the Power Index (n)
and the Consistency Index (k).
 Plastic Viscosity {PV)
¨ The PV is the difference between the readings at 600 and 300 RPM (R6oo -
R300).
¨ Plastic viscosity is that part of the resistance to flow caused by
mechanical friction.
¨ The PV is mainly dependent on the amount of particles in the mud.
Secondary effects on PV are caused by the shape of the particles and the
liquid viscosity.
¨ PV is increased by:
¨ Increase in solids content due to penetration or addition of weighting
agents.
¨ Increase in solids content due to insufficient solids removal.
¨ - Addition of polymers (CMC HV, starch HV) to the mud.
¨ A lowest possible PV is essential for:
¨ low frictional losses
¨ - Optimal hole cleaning.
¨ The PV can be reduced by:
¨ - lowering the solids concentration (watering back, settling)
¨ - Removal of solids (centrifuge, desander, desilter)
 Yield Point (YP)
¨ The Yield Point is calculated by substracting the PV from the fann reading
at 300 RPM (R300 - PV), and expressed in lb/100 ft2. The Yield Point is that
part of the resistance to flow caused by attractive forces between particles.
The YP is a function of:
¨ - Type of solids and surface charge associated with them
¨ - Solids concentration
¨ - Ionic concentration-in the liquid phase.
¨ Clays suspended in water generally develop negative charges on the faces
of the individual platelets and positive charges on the edges. Attraction
between these charges leads to build-up of a card house type structure
which results in a high YP.
¨ The YP is increased by
¨ Addition of clay particles to the mud drilling through clay layers
¨ - Addition of biopolymers to the mud
¨ Contamination of mud with e.g. salts, cement of gypsum.
¨ The YP is decreased by
¨ - shielding of the positive clay charges with thinners (e.g. lignosulfonates)
¨ - Reduction of solids content (solids removal, watering back) chemical
neutralization of contaminants.
 Cont. YP
¨ An optimal YP is essential for:
¨ Carrying capacity of the mud (rule of
thumb YP = +0.75 x hole size (in))

¨ - Stability of mud towards settling of

solids (rule of thumb YP =+_ 9 x
spec. gravity kg/I)
 Gels
¨ Gel values are a measure of the build-up of gel
structures in the mud under static conditions. Gel
values originate from the same forces and
parameters as the YP. Gel values are measured
after 10 seconds and 10 minutes of static build-
up of the mud. A reasonable 10" gel is essential
to prevent immediate settling of solids when
circulation is stopped.
¨ A large difference between 10" gel and 10' gel
indicates a slow but ongoing build-up of
structure. This may result in highly gelled muds
during a round trip and hence in high swab/surge
pressures causing hole failure. Optimally the 10'
gel value is 1.5 x the 10" gel value.
 Fluid loss/mud cake
¨ As the hydrostatic head of the mud is generally higher than the
pore pressure in the formation, liquid from the mud will be forced
into the formation. Consequently a filter cake consisting of the
solids in the mud is formed on the borehole wall. For various
reasons it is essential that this mud cake is as thin and
impermeable as possible. Dispersed and deflocculated clay
particles a re very small and flat and can form a thin and
impermeable mud cake. If larger particles are present (clay
aggregates, flocculated clay, sand, weighting material) the space
between the particles in the mud cake is bigger and various
chemicals are required to control the fluid loss
¨ The fluid loss is determined according to an API method and
expressed in ml/30 min. Local experience is required to establish
the fluid loss requirements for particular hole intervals. The
condition and thickness of the filtercake obtained from the API
test are very important for e.g. sticking tendency of the hole.
 MUD CHEMICALS
¨ Bentonite (active clay) is the most
important constituent of almost all water
base muds. When suspended in
freshwater bentonite provides viscosity
(mainly yp/gel) and fluid loss properties.
¨ It generally takes some 6-12 hrs before a
bentonite suspension has reached its full
properties. In saline solutions bentonite
does not develop viscosity. In saline muds
bentonite is therefore added in a
prehydrated form i.e. premixed in fresh
water
 Salt water gel - attapulgite
¨ Attapulgite is a clay mineral with a needle
like structure that develops viscosity in
salt water solutions. Its use is generally no
longer recommended for the following
reasons:
¨ - Fluid loss control in attapulgite muds is
very difficult
¨ - Attapulgite may be a health hazard
(silicoses) due to its needle type structure.
 Lignosulphonates, lignites
(thinners)
¨ Lignosulphonates and lignites are available
under numerous trade names. These chemicals
are thinners and dispersants.
¨ They reduce the yield point (dynamic attractive
forces) and the gels (static attractive forces), and
hence the funnel viscosity. The yield point and
gels are reduced because the thinner "coats" the
bentonite particles and neutralises charged
particles on the surface of the clay. With surface
charges neutralized, the clays can disperse
properly and thus form a thin filter cake with a
uniform overlapping texture. It is by this
mechanism that dispersants allow bentonite to
reduce fluid loss.
 Caustic Soda/Lime
¨ Caustic Soda (sodium hydroxide NaOH)
and Lime (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2) are
both alkaline products which increase the
pH of a mud. The amount of pH increase,
however, is also dependent on the
concentration of buffering agents in the
mud. The combination of buffering agents
and OH concentration is a measure for the
alkalinity (Pf) of the mud. Most thinners
only work at a pH of 9.5-10 and a minimum
pf of 0.5.
 Calcium sulfate (gypsum)
¨ Gypsum is sometimes added to the
mud when large amounts of active
clay are present in the mud or when
active clay or anhydrite layers are to
be drilled.
¨ The gypsum dissolves partly and the
Calcium ions now present in the mud
prevent clay swelling or further
dissolution of anhydrite.
 Potassium chloride
¨ Potassium chloride (KCI) is
sometimes added to the mud when
trouble some clay or shale layers
must be drilled. Potassium ions
adhere to clay/shale particles and
prevent swelling. When operating a
KCL mud it is essential to closely
monitor the ratio of K"1" and Cl" ion
concentrations in the mud. This ratio
should be higher than 0.5.
 Sodium carbonate/sodium
bicarbonate
¨ Sodium carbonate (soda ash) or sodium
bicarbonate can be added to mud when
the concentration of calcium ions is too
high (e.g. due to overdosage of gypsum,
drilling into chalk layers or cement
contamination).
¨ A too high concentration of Ca ions will
spoil the viscosity and fluid loss
properties of clay.
 CMC/STARCH
¨ A large number of polymers is available
worldwide under many different trade names. The
base products are normally Cellulose (CMC,
carbocel etc.) or Starch (flocgel, stabilose). These
polymers affect both the fluid loss and the
viscosity of the mud. LV (low viscosity) versions
are generally designed to lower the fluid loss
without major effects on viscosity. HV (high
viscosity) versions have a major effect on the
viscosity (PV) and generally reduce the fluid loss
as well. HV polymers should be used only when
high viscosity is required.
 Biopolymers
¨ Recently several biopolymer (X-C Polymer,
Rhodopol, Enerflo, Drillam X/84) have
found worldwide application in drilling
fluids.
¨ These polymers are quite expensive.
When used in concentrations as low as 2-
3 kg/m 3 (1 Ib/bbI) a major increase in YP
and gel values is normally obtained.
 Salts
¨ Various salts (Sodiumchloride,
Magnesiumchloride and/or
Potassiumchloride) are used for
drilling through salt sections.
¨ The mud is saturated to the salt that
is expected in the hole and thus
washouts due to dissolution of salt
layers are prevented. Ref. also the
section on salt saturated muds.
 Weighting material
¨ Barytes, Dolomite and Iron oxide are
used as weighting materials.
¨ Prior to adding weighting materials
the mud must have a YP sufficient to
keep the barytes in suspension.
¨ Weighting materials add solids and
proportionally reduce the amount of
free water in the system.
Uses of Prehydrated Bentonite
¨ Bentonite is added to water based muds to increase the
viscosity and gel strength, suspend solids and increase the
carrying capacity of the mud. Bentonite forms a filter cake
and, if properly dispersed, is the main agent for reducing
water loss.
¨ Bentonite will yield in fresh water; but not in salty water.
Hence if bentonite is to be used in salty water, it must be
prehydrated in fresh water. Before adding bentonite to the
water (or any other chemical), test the water for salinity and
hardness. As a guide, use soda ash at 1 lb/100 bbls water
every one ppm total hardness, then add caustic to obtain
the required pH. Note that in salt saturated muds, even
prehydrated bentonite may have limited use as osmotic
forces will dehydrate the bentonite again
 SPUD MUD
¨ When drilling top hole vast amounts of cuttings
are generated due to high penetration rates and
large hole sizes.
¨ In view of the limited pump capacity the carrying
capacity of the mud is of prime importance.
¨ Hence a low n value (i.e. a high YP/PV ratio) is
required. Spud mud normally consists of some
40-60 kg/m3 Bentonite in fresh water.
¨ The pH is maintained at 9-10 with caustic soda.
Sometimes some CMC-HV polymer is required for
extra viscosity.
 Spud Mud Cont.
¨ General Properties
¨ Density 1.05-1.15 kg/L
¨ MF visc 80-100 sec
¨ PV ±20
¨ YP 20 - 30
¨ O'GEL 5-15
¨ Fluid Loss ±30m1API
¨ pH 9-10
 BENTONITE/LIGNO MUD
¨ Fresh water bentonite mud is a relatively
inexpensive drilling mud which is used widely in
drilling operations. The main mud parameters are
maintained by careful balancing of clay and
lignosulfonate additions.
¨ Addition of clay will increase YP and gel values
whereas lignosulfonate additions will lower the
fluid loss and YP/gel values.
¨ When mud properties cannot be maintained
additions of CMC-LV are required.
¨ The PV is kept low by optimal solids removal and
dilution. Batchwise dilution (replacement of 20-
30% of the total mud volume in one circulation) is
more effective than continuous dilution.
 BENTONITE/LIGNO MUD
¨ General properties
¨ density < 1.20 kg/L
¨ MF vise. 45 sec
¨ PV 15-20
¨ YP 8-12
¨ gel 2/4
¨ Fluid loss as required
¨ pH 9.5-10.5
 GYP/LIGINO MUD
¨ Gypsum is sometimes added to the mud when large
amounts of active clay must be drilled.
¨ The calcium ions from the gyp convert the clay particles
into the relatively harmless calcium form whereby strong
increases in viscosity are prevented.
¨ Additions of ligno sulfonate further reduce the viscosity.
CMC or starches are required for fluid loss control as the
clay particles are now aggregated and consequently no thin
filter cake can be obtained.
¨ A bentonite fresh water ligno sulphonate mud may also be
converted to a gypsum type of mud if large sections of
anhydrite layers have to be drilled.
 GYP/LIGINO MUD Cont.
¨ General properties
¨ density < 1.30 kg/L
¨ PV ±20
¨ YP 10-15
¨ gel 8/12
¨ Fluid loss ±10 ml
¨ pH 9.5-10.5
¨ Ca-++ 600-1200 ppm
 SALT MUDS
¨ Salt saturated muds are used for drilling
salt formations. The mud is saturated to
the salt (or salt mixture) that is to be
drilled.
¨ As most salts are plastic and tend to
close the freshly drilled hole high mud
weights are often required to maintain a
stable borehole. In view of these density
requirements no average properties of salt
saturated muds can be given.
 OIL BASE MUD
¨ Oil base muds are used worldwide for several different
applications.
¨ Oil base muss are especially suitable for drilling slim and
deviated holes, depleted zones and water sensible
formations. Two different types of oil base muds can be
distinguished, pure oil base muds and invert oil emulsion
muds (IOEM).
¨ Pure oil base mud contains less than 3% vol water. This
water is considered as unavoidable contaminant and the
mud properties are created by adding chemicals. Invert Oil
Emulsion Mud contains 5 - 40% vol water which is well
emulsified. In this case water replaces expensive oil and
provides part of the mud properties. It is generally
recommended to use chemicals that belong to the same
mud system as most oil base mud systems contain
chemicals that are adapted to each other..
 OIL BASE MUD Cont.
¨ Electrical stability
¨ The electrical stability of IOEM measure of the voltage
required to initiate the flow of an electrical current through
the mud. A change in electrical stability normally
represents a change in the emulsion stability of the mud.
Several parameters determine the absolute value of
electrical stability:
¨ - Total water content and emulsion droplet size
¨ - Electrolyte concentration in the water phase
¨ - Temperature of the mud
¨ - Presence of water wet solids.
¨ The electrical stability of field muds varies generally
between 500 and 1000 volts.
Drilling fluid design criteria
¨ ·       Viscosity and gel strength.
¨ ·       Types of formation ( salt, shale ).
¨ ·       Porous and permeable zones, ( if the porous
and permeable zone contained hydrocarbons,
then this filtration process could easily alter the
permeability around the well bore, Resulting in
lower production, a large deposit of solids (filter
cake ) on the porous and permeable zones can
create many mechanical problems ( excessive of
torque and drag ), increased surge and swab
pressures, and differential stuck.
¨ ·       Solution : Controlling fluid loss in a drilling
fluid to minimize this high deposition of solids.
 Damaging Mechanisms:
¨ ·  Permeability can be reduced by the
¨ invasion of foreign liquid and /or solids
¨ into the exposed part of formation
¨ adjacent
¨ to the well bore.
¨ · Solids within the formation can also
¨ reduced permeability by migrating and
¨ creating impassable restrictions.
¨ · Drilling fluid exposure can be a major
¨ cause of formation damage resulting in
¨ reduced permeability.
 
Damage due to filtrate invasion:
¨ Emulsion Formation
¨ Water Blocks:
¨ Change in Wet ability
 
Minimizing Formation Damage
¨ · First objective is reduction of the
¨ volume of mud filtrate lost to
¨ permeable formations.
¨ · The factors which affect the loss of
filtrate are:
¨ a) Time b) Temperature
¨ c) Pressure d) Mud solids
characteristics ( dispersion, viscosity
of filtrate, etc.).
 MINIMIZING DAMAGE BY SOLIDS INVASION:
¨  
Solids can be classified as either
¨ Compressible solids
¨ Incompressible solids
¨  SOLIDS HANDLING
1) Mechanical 2) Chemical
¨ Nearly balanced pressure:
¨ Under balanced pressure
¨  Proper stimulation methods