What does a

professional document
look like?
Content must present an engaging and compelling
argument, but it must also be easy to read and follow
– i.e. be visually attractive.
Essays
Structure

• Title: The title and all the required information (e.g., author).
• Introduction: The introduction (around 5–10 percent of the word count) should outline the main subject of your essay,
identify what your main argument will be and indicate the stages of your argument.
• Body: The body of the essay (around 80–90 percent) is where you set out your main argument. It should have a
narrative flow that highlights the sequence of the different points in your argument. Your reader should be able to follow a
coherent and continuous ‘story’ from start to finish. Use separate paragraphs for each point part of your argument. Don’t
forget to cite sources of your evidence and include these in your reference list
• Conclusion: The conclusion (around 5–10 percent of the word count) should summarise the issues you have raised in
the body of your assignment (e.g. how it answers the question) and tie up any loose ends in your argument. It should
emphasise the key elements of your argument. Return to the essay question and show how your argument supports
your answer to the question.
• References: At level 3, we expect these to be in the correct format – see
https://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=15025 for guidance

2
Reports
Structure
• Title: Title and all the required information (e.g., author).
• Table of contents: Word has an inbuilt function to create a table of contents, so this can be added after completing the
report.
• Executive summary: The abstract is a self-contained, brief summary of the report, describing its scope and main
findings. This is written last as you need to complete the work that you do on the report before you can write it.
• Introduction: The introduction gives the purpose and scope of the report. Outline the aim of the investigation and list the
objectives or intended outcomes. Your introduction should also provide background information to clarify why the
investigation was undertaken. Conclude your introduction with a sentence that leads into the body of your report.
• Body of the report: The main account of the case or organisation you are writing about. It should be based on analysis,
not unsupported opinion, so avoid writing ‘I feel …’
• You must back up what you write with evidence and argument..
• Headings for each sub-section should be underlined or in bold.
• Consider presenting material in the form of diagrams, charts, or tables wherever appropriate. These may
complement the text by providing information in an easy-to-grasp way. They might engage your reader’s attention
and make the message more interesting.
• Conclusions and recommendations: These are not the same thing;
• Conclusions draw together the threads of your argument to support your points about issues that need to be
addressed.
• Recommendations are the specific actions that you argue should be carried out to address the issues you have
identified. They should follow logically from your conclusions
• References: Use the Harvard format (see previous link)
• Appendices: Appendices contain information that is not central to the main body of the report. Their purpose is to allow
you to include important information which, if it were included in the main body of the report, would interrupt the flow of
the argument. Appendices will not be marked.
3
Outlining Example of an outline:
Preparing the structure

A good outline is important to prepare an

essay or a professional document:
• It helps structure your document
• It give you an overview of what you are
going to write, to see if it makes sense
• It helps you in balancing the text among
the different paragraphs

(from http://www.businessenglishhq.com/business-writing-structure/) 4
Draft
Tips for preparing the early draft

• Create the outline

• Do not start from the executive summary or from the introduction: they come later
• Copy in your notes in the structure of the outline and expand them
• Draft your ideas quickly: then you will polish and refine the text
• Develop one idea per paragraph, starting with a topic or key sentence
• Write three to five sentences per paragraph. Do not write like a flux of consciousness
• Use linking expressions to connect sentences and paragraphs (e.g., “however” to show contrast, “moreover” to add
information). See https://help.open.ac.uk/using-linking-words
• Write notes to myself in brackets in the document reminding what you need to develop or add
• Do not get stuck on a paragraph: leave a note and come back later
• Avoid many “complex” sentences that may confuse the reader: go straight to the point
(adapted from http://www.businessenglishhq.com/business-writing-structure/)

5
Paragraphs
Creating paragraphs

What is the correct structure? Why?

6
Visuals
Tips for using visuals

Visuals (tables, diagrams, charts) are useful to communicate your message and show
information in a synthetic way.

• When using a table (text in columns) or figure (a visual representation of results), refer to it in
the text
• The meaning of a table or figure should speak for itself and be clear to the reader,
• Place a table or figure in an appropriate place next to the text
• Visuals should not duplicate the text
• Use figures such as graphs and charts to present statistical information: examples include pie
charts to show relationships among multiple values and bar charts for comparisons and
trends
(adapted from The AMA Handbook of Business Writing, pp. 13-14)

7
 Tips on academic writing

Writing Style
Select your writing style

Select a writing style appropriate for the audience

• Academic audience (essays)
• Business audience (reports)

Do they have the same requirements?

Why?

Open University (2007) Preparing assignments, Milton Keynes, England, Open University. 8
Referencing
Acknowledging the work of others

When you reference it means

• you acknowledge other peoples’ work and
• the reader can locate the sources you have used.

Referencing is
• one aspect of developing good academic practice, and
• an essential skill to learn at University
• fundamental to avoid plagiarism

Referencing style: OU Harvard

How to format your references: see https://learn1.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=15025

9
Original writing
Tips to write original arguments

How to write originally, showing critical abilities and reflective skills? Here you can find
some tips:

• Take your time: writing requires time and cannot be done in a rush, because it is a
creative process
• Read from different sources and take notes: read different sources and collect your
ideas into notes. Notetaking is fundamental to analyse what your studying (and avoid “[t]he history of human
plagiarism) thought would make it seem
that there is difficulty in
• Compare and contrast different sources to make cross-connections thinking of an idea even
• Capture your ideas: record our ideas when they come up when all the facts are on the
table. Making the cross-
• Plan your writing: separate the thinking process from the writing process and plan this connection requires a
latter carefully certain daring” (Asimov
[1959] 2014, para. 10).
• Practise writing in your own words: develop confidence in your writing skills
10
Build arguments
Useful references

You can use this link to download the OU’s study skills booklets.
• Communicating and Presenting
• Preparing Assignments
• Good Study Guide (an e-book that covers all aspects of academic study skills)
http://www2.open.ac.uk/students/skillsforstudy/
(You will find the link to downloadable booklets at the bottom of the page)
https://help.open.ac.uk/students/_data//documents/helpcentre/preparing-assignments.pdf

11
What is an argument?
Different meanings of the same word

Popular meaning

1. a quarrel or unfriendly discussion.

2. a reason for or against an idea, etc. 
Academic
Academic uses
use
3. the use of reason in making decisions. 
4. a summary of the theme or subject of a book, etc.
Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, The Chambers Thesaurus (1996) [Online].
Available from: https://chambers.co.uk/search/?query=argument&title=21st [Accessed 10 October 2019].

12
What is an argument?
More detailed definition

Argument
a sequence of statements some of which (the premises) purport to give reason to accept another of them, the conclusion.
Since we speak of bad arguments and weak arguments, the premises of an argument need not really support the
conclusion, but they must give some appearance of doing so or ‘argument’ is misapplied.
Logic is mainly concerned with the question of validity: whether if the premises are true we would have reason to accept
the conclusion. A valid argument with true premises is called sound.
A valid deductive argument is one such that if we accept the premises we are logically bound to accept the conclusion
and if we reject the conclusion we are logically bound to reject one or more of the premises. Alternatively, the premises
logically entail the conclusion.
A good inductive argument – some would reserve ‘valid’ for deductive arguments – is one such that if we accept the
premises we are logically bound to regard the conclusion as probable and, in addition, as more probable than it would be if
the premises should be false. A few arguments have only one premise and/or more than one conclusion.
Purtill, R. (2015). argument. In R. Audi (Ed.), The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy. (3rd ed.). [Online]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available from:
http://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupdphil/argument/0?institutionId=292 [Accessed 10 October 2019].

13
What is an argument?
Demonstrate critical thinking

1. To think critically is to examine ideas, evaluate them against what you already know and make decisions about their
merit. The aim of critical thinking is to try to maintain an ‘objective’ position. When you think critically, you weigh up all
sides of an argument and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. So, critical thinking skills entail:
• actively seeking all sides of an argument
• testing the soundness of the claims made
• testing the soundness of the evidence used to support the claims.
2. ‘Critical analysis’ is the process of using critical thinking skills to test the validity and reliability of the claims made in
the materials you read (e.g. journal articles, case studies, newspaper articles, even the course materials for this
module). Is the author ‘biased’ in any way?
• Validity: does the evidence presented really support the point/assertion being made?
• Reliability: is the evidence capable of being interpreted differently by other readers? This is the idea that
‘information’ may not be free from subjective interpretation – i.e. bias.
• Bias: the interpretation of something in a particular way, consciously or unconsciously, as a result of a
predisposition caused by one’s values, beliefs and experiences, or missing information that might lead to a
different interpretation.
3. Critical analysis skills will be assessed in this module – high marks are more likely to be gained where the evidence of
critical analysis in your writing is strong. At level 3, these skills have a high weighting in the assignment marking
schemes

14
What is an argument?
Why is building compelling arguments important?

In academic writing, the author’s position is judged on the basis of the extent to which they have presented a compelling
argument based on evaluating its validity, reliability and lack of bias.
You will need to demonstrate the ability to create a compelling argument is:
• Assignments
• Tutor Group Forum activities
• Group projects (collaborative activities)

15
What is an argument?
Argument are all around us

Example of an instruction:
You can’t go to
the party!

Example of an argument:
You can’t go to the party because you have to study
math and the deadline for the assignment is tomorrow!

Argument should be compelling (in other words, persuasive):

Can I buy new smartphone? No, you can’t because:

1. Your smartphone is still working
2. You got it less than one year ago
3. We have our expenses in mind

End of argument?!?!
16
What is an argument?
How is an argument structured?
An argument is made of the following components:
A. The claim: this is the point that is being made and is being argued for.
B. The evidence: this is the grounds upon which the claim is made. Sometimes it might be data from a study, other times it
might be a quote or reference to someone else’s published work. You will hear it referred to as the ‘supporting
evidence’. The evidence needs to fully support the claim being made or, if it doesn’t, its weaknesses need to be
acknowledged and dealt with in some way (for example, by qualifications’)
C. The warrant: this is the general principle that forms the bridge between the claim and the evidence it is based on. It is
logical reasoning that connects the evidence to the claim. This is where academic writing skills become important
to make the case in a coherent and comprehensible way.
D. Qualifications: these are concessions that may have to be made within an argument that limit what someone might be
able to claim. It is important not to make claims beyond those the evidence will support. If evidence can be
interpreted differently, what is the impact of this on your own argument, for example? How reasonable is the alternative
interpretation?

References:
Booth, W., Colomb, G.G., Williams, J.M. (1995) ‘Making good arguments: an overview’, in The Craft of Research, The
University of Chicago Press, London.
Toulmin, S. (1958) The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
17
What is an argument?
Language matters
The form of language to be avoided
because they imply subjectivity and
biased in analysis:
• I think….. (Based on what evidence?)
• I believe…. (Why do you believe?)
• This proves…. (Assumes evidence
cannot be interpreted in a different way
or that you are in full possession of ALL
the evidence…i.e. you know everything
there needs to be known to make this
assertion).
• In my opinion…. (Is this based on
evidence that would lead everyone else
to this opinion?)
The form of language that shows criticality
in the examination of evidence and a
willingness to stand back look at the
argument from all sides.
• There is evidence to suggest… (You are
showing restraint in your argument that
accepts there may be limitations –
qualifications – to your argument)
• The evidence may also be interpreted
as… (This shows you are accepting
alternative points of view and you should
then evaluate the strength of the evidence
compared with the strength of evidence
supporting your interpretation and reach a
balanced view)
18
Effective TMA Writing
Understanding process words and developing arguments
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Content Words

Video resource: https://help.open.ac.uk/understanding-the-question

Highlight the content words in this text:

”With particular reference to Reading 1 in Book 2, discuss and evaluate the

grounds on which judgements are made about ‘cultural cannibalisation’.”

”With particular reference to Reading 1 in Book 2, discuss and evaluate the

grounds on which judgements are made about ‘cultural cannibalisation’.”

Here, the ‘grounds’ (the reasons behind the judgements) must be focused on. It is not enough just to describe the
judgements themselves. The content words are ‘grounds’, ‘judgements’, and ‘cultural cannibalisation’.
Adapted from OU Study Skills: https://help.open.ac.uk/content-word-activity
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 1/3
Match the process words to the definition:

give the exact meaning of a word or phrase,

perhaps examine different possible or often
Contrast
look at evidence / arguments for and against and
Define
weigh them up in terms of their value
How far / to what extent
set in opposition in order to bring out the
differences - you may also note that there are
similarities
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 1/3
Match the process words to the definition:

give the exact meaning of a word or phrase,

perhaps examine different possible or often
Contrast
look at evidence / arguments for and against and
Define
weigh them up in terms of their value
How far / to what extent
set in opposition in order to bring out the
differences - you may also note that there are
similarities
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 2/3
Match the process words to the definition:

look for and show the similarities and

differences between examples, perhaps reach a
conclusion about which is preferable and justify
this Discuss

Criticise
make a judgement backed by a reasoned
Compare
discussion of the evidence involved, describe
the merit of theories or opinions or the truth of
assertions

explain, then give two sides of the issue and any

implications
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 2/3
Match the process words to the definition:

look for and show the similarities and

differences between examples, perhaps reach a
conclusion about which is preferable and justify
this Discuss

Criticise
make a judgement backed by a reasoned
Compare
discussion of the evidence involved, describe
the merit of theories or opinions or the truth of
assertions

explain, then give two sides of the issue and any

implications
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 3/3
Match the process words to the definition:

make an appraisal of the worth / validity /

effectiveness of something (but not so that it is
your personal opinion and give evidence from
course materials Evaluate

Illustrate
make clear and explicit, and give carefully
chosen examples Analyse

resolve into its component parts, examine

critically or minutely
UNDERSTANDING THE
QUESTION
Process Words 3/3
Match the process words to the definition:

make an appraisal of the worth / validity /

effectiveness of something (but not so that it is
your personal opinion and give evidence from
course materials Evaluate

Illustrate
make clear and explicit, and give carefully
chosen examples Analyse

resolve into its component parts, examine

critically or minutely
WRITING EFFECTIVELY
Descriptive vs Critical Analytical Writing (Adapted from Cottrell ((2013))

Descriptive Writing Critical Analytical Writing

States what happened Identifies the significance

States what something is like Evaluates (judges the value) of strengths and weaknesses

Gives the story so far Weighs one piece of information against another

States the order in which things happened Makes reasoned judgements

Says how to do something Argues a case according to evidence

Explains what a theory says Shows why something is relevant or suitable

Explains how something work Indicates why something will work (best)

Notes the method used Indicates whether something is appropriate or suitable

Says when something occurred Identifies why the timing is important

States the different components Weighs up the importance of component parts

States options Gives reasons for the selection of each options

Lists details Evaluates the relative significance of details

Lists in any order Structures information in order of importance [etc.]

States links between items Shows the relevance of links between pieces of information

Gives information Draws conclusions

WRITING EFFECTIVELY
Descriptive or Critical

"The data shows that the incidence (new

cases) of asthma rates in children under 15
years old increased rapidly from 1977,
peaking in 1993 and then declining, though
rates still remain significantly higher than pre-
1976 levels.”
(Leeds University, n.d.)
"The trend, from 1977 until 1993, of a rapid rise
in rates of asthma diagnosis in children under 15
years, suggests that one of the causal factors was
particularly prevalent during this time, but has
since declined in importance or effect.”
(Leeds University, n.d.)

DESCRIPTIVE CRITICAL
WRITING EFFECTIVELY
Descriptive or Critical
"Carl Rogers' theory of a person-centred
approach focuses on the freedom of the
individual to determine what values should be
used to measure successful personal
outcomes or benefit, and is particularly
relevant for social workers when wanting to
take into account the diverse needs of the
client group.”
(Leeds University, n.d.)
DESCRIPTIVE
"Carl Rogers' theory of a person-centred approach
is particularly suitable for social workers wanting
to work with a client group with diverse needs
because it allows the client to determine what
values should be used to measure successful
outcomes, rather than those externally determined
by, for example, the service, state or dominant
culture in society.”
(Leeds University, n.d.) CRITICAL
WRITING EFFECTIVELY
Descriptive or Critical
"In addition to competency-based questions,
"In addition to competency-based questions, the
candidates were asked to complete an in-tray
task prioritisation exercise. This was because candidates were asked to complete an in-tray
it was considered a more effective way to exercise, which required them to allocate different
measure likely performance in the actual role
priority levels to tasks, as an appropriate method
as the majority of the job would involve similar
tasks, with little interaction with customers and to measure their likely performance in the actual
therefore less requirement for highly job.”
developed communication skills.".

(Leeds University, n.d.)

(Leeds University, n.d.)

CRITICAL DESCRIPTIVE
WRITING EFFECTIVELY
QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF

How clear am I about my position on the issue, including hypotheses and

conclusions?

Are my conclusions clear?

Have I constructed a clear line of reasoning?

Have I used evidence to support my reasoning?

Have I considered multiple perspectives?

Remember to include descriptive writing where appropriate, or weave small elements