CHAPTER 8

Sexuality

Copyright © 2020 W. W. Norton & Company

Chapter Learning Outcomes

• What Is Sexuality and Where

Does It Come From?
• How Has Sexuality Been
Constructed in the United
States?
• How Is Sexuality an Arena for
Working out Relations of Power?
Sexuality

“Sexuality is the complex range of desires, beliefs, and

behaviors that are related to erotic physical contact
and the cultural arena within which people debate
about what kinds of physical desires and behaviors
are right, appropriate, and natural.”
—Ken Guest
What is Sexuality and Where Does It Come From? (2 of 3)
• Procreation is biological process, but human sexuality is
not exclusively associated with procreation

• Human sexuality does not mirror sexual behavior in the

animal kingdom.
• Most animals do not form monogamous pairs. Most male
animals do not take any part in child rearing, or even
recognize their offspring. Most animals have sexual
intercourse in public with no regard for what other animals
are around them. Most female animals engage in sexual
activity only when they are ovulating. Most other animals do
not have sex for fun.

• It is difficult to link specific genes to specific sexual

behaviors.

• Sociologically, cultural norms and values have a strong

impact on sexual behavior.
What is Sexuality and Where Does It Come From? (3 of 3)
Sexuality and Culture
• Symbolic Interactionist Theory suggests that
sexual feelings and are shaped by one’s
experiences and surroundings.
• Culture guides what is considered acceptable
and normal sexual expression (norms, values).
• Culture also limits the diversity of sexual
expression by organizing this spectrum into
seemingly discrete categories (social
structure).
Sexuality and Culture
• As part of our acculturation process, we are taught
about sexuality.
• Our parents and our families model relationships
before us. Our cultural institutions, including
schools, religious organizations, and governments,
also instruct us on what is proper and what is
normal

• Popular culture in America is extremely influential

when it comes to sexuality. The behaviors and
manners of dress modeled by popular singers and
movie stars can have a significant impact on the
behavior of others.

• An honest study of sexuality cannot deny that culture

has a huge impact on sexual behaviors.
Sexual Orientation – What is it?
Sexual orientation is the patterned way in which a person views and expresses the sexual
component of his or her personality; it is what the person defines for themselves
• It refers to a person’s sexual attraction and activities
• Method of social control
• Homosexual a term that describes emotional attraction, sexual desire and sexual activity
between persons of the same sex
• Heterosexual – a term that describes emotional attraction, sexual desire and sexual
activity between persons of the opposite sex
What is the Heterosexual Assumption?

• Assuming that every human

being is born heterosexual, that
heterosexuality is Innate.

• What does this mean?

 Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of
Gender and Sexual Minorities

U N DERSTA N DIN G GS M T H RO U GH T H E L E NS O F A CO M BI NAT I O N O F S OC I A L A N D

H I STO RI C A L FAC TORS.
Cross-Cultural and Historical Variation
Cross cultural variation
• In many societies, homosexuality was a
normal part of life for many members.

• It was in certain cultures that these

actions came to be seen as deviant.
(why?)

Cultural codes of sexual expression

dictate whether an act is legal, normal,
deviant or pathological.
What Historical Evidence has described the
Existence of Homosexuality?
• In Ancient Japanese society, the practice of same sex activity was normal amongst samurai
warriors and men of high society, most of whom were married to women.

• Ancient Greek writings describe same sex sexual activity between men as an Acceptable
Practice:
• The Band of Thebes was a successful and famous military unit consisting of 150
pairs of male lovers
What is the Scope of Human Sexuality When Seen in a Global
Perspective? (1 of 2)

• In Western culture, sexual orientation is approached as a

fixed concept. You are either heterosexual or
homosexual. It is an established part of your identity. But,
this is not a universal concept
• Mati: Suriname women who engage in intimate spiritual,
emotional, and sexual relationships with women and men.
• The mati regard sexuality as a flexible behavior rather
than a fixed identity, a direct contrast to most Western
concepts of sexuality.

• Longitudinal studies of human sexuality are more aligned

with Mati cultural practices than Western cultural norms
(Kinsey).
What is the Scope of Human Sexuality When Seen in a Global
Perspective? (2 of 2)

• Roger Lancaster’s (1994) research in Nicaragua

examined the dynamics of machismo in sexual
relations between men.

• In the U.S., the term “gay” is applied to any man

engaging in sexual relations with another man.
But in Nicaragua, the pejorative cochon was only
used to describe the recipient of anal intercourse.
The penetrator, called a machista, was still
considered a manly-man.

• Among Nicaraguan men, the intersection of

power and sexuality privileges aggression and
assertiveness regardless of sexual identity.
• Is this just within the Nicaraguan culture?
The Invention of Heterosexuality –It Wasn’t the Norm…

• Sexual intercourse between females and males is generally

presumed to be the predominant pattern within any species.

• In the past, Western European cultures, and in turn American

cultures, were strongly influenced by social institutions (most
notably religious institutions) to view sex as for procreation
only.

• The term heterosexuality does not appear in the English

language until 1892. The term was coined by German
psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his book Psychopathia
Sexualis. He used the term for people who held erotic feelings
for the opposite sex. The key term here is “erotic.”

• Von Krafft-Ebing was thus defining heterosexuality not as a

norm but instead as a mental disorder, where people felt
inappropriate or exaggerated feelings of eroticism toward
the opposite sex.
How Has Sexuality Been Constructed in the United States?
(1 of 3): The Invention of Heterosexuality

• Heterosexuality as it is practiced and

understood in the U.S. is a recent
invention.
• Sexologists such as Alfred Kinsey found
that human sexuality did not fit into
simplistic categories.
• Despite these findings, sexology played a
central role in the establishment of
heterosexuality as the dominant erotic
ideal in U.S. culture.
 Kinsey Continuum of Sexual Orientation

Homosexuality and heterosexuality was seen as an either or up until research by Kinsey in

the 1940’s and 1950’s.
Kinsey proposed that sexuality is really on a continuum from exclusive heterosexuality to
exclusive homosexuality in seven points.
• 0 = Exclusively heterosexual
• 3 = Equally heterosexual and homosexual
• 6 = Exclusively homosexual

Source: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, by A. Kinsey, W. Pomeroy, and C. Martin, 1948, The Kinsey Institute,
W.B. Saunders

A P A and A M A removed homosexuality from list of mental illness in 1973

What was the Impact of the Kinsey Report?

Promoted more research:

• Evelyn Hooker’s case studies of gay and straight
men
– experts could not determine which men were
gay or straight
– concluded that 2/3 of the gay men were
mentally stable

APA and AMA removed homosexuality from list of mental illness in

1973
How Did the US Respond to Homosexuality?
• Laws prohibiting sodomy existed in the penal codes of
numerous US states for more than 100 years, criminalizing this
sexual behavior between same-sex and opposite-sex partners.
• Lawrence v Texas (2003) eventually struck down all laws
criminalizing same-sex physicality.

Late 19th century researchers:

• Regarded it as a perversion of the natural human condition.
• Was officially considered a mental illness and treated as such
until 1973
• Immersion therapy

• Shock therapy

• Labotomy

• Medication therapy
Cultural Heterosexism

R E F E RS TO A D O M I N A N T C U LT U R E D E F I N I N G H E T E R O S E X UA L I T Y A S T H E N O R M A N D
R EG A R D I N G OT H E R S E X UA L B E H AV I O R A S D E V I A N T
How Has Sexuality Been Constructed in the United States?

 Despite research, sexuality in American culture is still

largely viewed in the binary. People can be either
heterosexual or homosexual. These identities are largely
considered fixed and unchanging.
 There is some conception of bisexuality for
those people who pursue sexual relationships
with members of both sexes.
 There is an even more limited concept of
asexuality, for those individuals who have no
desire to engage in sexual relationships.

 These beliefs have resulted in the cultural value system

of heteronormativity and the norm of compulsory
heterosexuality

 They have also resulted in societally defined norms

amongst heterosexual couples.
The Normalization of Sexual Orientation

• As with other methods of acculturation,

heterosexuality is normalized through
pop culture, social institutions, and
interpersonal interactions.

• Where/how is this encouraged? What

are the ramifications?

• Are there other locations in our society

that reinforce the dominant norm of
heterosexuality?
The Normalization of Heterosexuality: Consumer Culture

• In the U.S., children are aggressively acculturated into

accepting the socially constructed heterosexual norm of the
“white wedding”.
• These weddings reinforce gendered power dynamics
through the “giving away” of the bride and the
gendered division of labor that usually occurs in
the resulting household.
• Girls are groomed from birth, with images of
weddings and brides, on U.S. dating culture
constructed around a proposal of marriage (from a
man, to a woman)

• Most Americans cannot afford the cost of an average U.S.

wedding.
• White weddings are vestiges of a consumer culture
that privileges those who can afford to have them.
Gender and Sexual Regulation

Heteronormativity –heterosexuality is the

cultural value system

Compulsory Heterosexuality – expected

and enforced norm of being heterosexual

Sexual Scripts – social expectations of

behavior

Sexual Self-Schemas – individual

understandings of self

23
 Sexuality and Cultural Norms: Sexual Scripts
Sexuality has both a public and
private component in the
United States
• Which of these are
private and which are
public?
• Adultery
• Kissing
• Flirting
• How might these differ
in different societies?

In the United States monogamy

(one sexual partner at a time)
is an example of a public
sexual script
Sexuality and Personal Self: Sexual Schemas
Sexual Fit/Sexual Schema is the combination of physical traits and attributes
that an individual is interested in.
Deviance

Personal
Schema Personal
Personal Schema
Personal
Societal Schema
Schema
Expectations/
Norms
(Sharp-Grier, 2015)

 Who are you attracted to?

 height
 weight
 hair color
 body build
 race
 sex
Sexual orientation as Schema
Lesbian – a woman attracted to women

Gay – a man attracted to men

Bisexual – an individual attracted to someone regardless of binary biological sex

Transgender – an individual who understands themselves to have incongruent biological sex and gender identity

Queer – a previously offensive term for gay that has been reclaimed

Questioning – a person who is questioning their orientation

Intersex – a person who is born with both male and female genitalia and/or hormonal variations

Ally – a straight person who is an advocate for LGBTQ people

Asexual – a person who does not have sexual desire for others

Pansexual – an individual who is attracted to someone regardless of biological sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity

Demisexual – a person who is sexually attracted only to those for whom they have an emotional attachment.
What Does it Mean to Be Transgender?

Transgender is a broad range of identities in which conflicts exist with

• Ascribed Gender and biological sex assignment
• Performative Gender for male and female behavior (1.5 million people,
0.5% of the U.S. population)

F to M
M to F
Why do some L G B T People Refer to themselves as "Queer"?

• It encompasses All LGBTQ+

people

• Only some are comfortable with

the term

• Queer studies departments

exist at many universities
How is Sexuality an Arena for Working Out Relations of
Social and Cultural Power? (1 of 2)
Intersections of Race and Sexuality for Black Gay Women
• Mignon Moore (2011) found that for
black gay women, race is equal to, if
not stronger than sexuality as a
primary framework to shape
identity.
• Moore suggests women who live
openly as lesbians, forming families,
getting married and raising children,
offer a way to redefine what
“respectability” looks like.
How is Sexuality an Arena for Working Out Relations of
Social and Cultural Power? (2 of 2)
Sex, Disability, and Social Justice in Denmark and Sweden
• In Denmark, the sexuality of people
with disabilities is acknowledged,
discussed and facilitated.
• In Sweden, the erotic lives of people with
disabilities are denied, repressed, and
discouraged.
• What can be done to support people with
disabilities as they form attachments of
sexual pleasure and love with others?
Sociological Theories of
Gender and Sexuality
Sociological Perspectives on Orientation, and Inequality:
Functinalism
Functionalists identify how society upholds normative gender identity,
heterosexuality and a marital union between a man and a woman as
ideal normative behavior.

Institutionalized heterosexuality - the set of ideas, institutions, and

relationships that define the heterosexual family as the societal norm
Sociological Perspectives on Orientation, and
Inequality: Conflict Perspective

Heterosexism - assumes that heterosexuality is the norm, encouraging

discrimination in favor of heterosexuals and against homosexuals.

Heterosexual privilege – defined as the set of privileges or advantages granted to

some people because of their heterosexuality.

From a feminist perspective, the question about gay marriage rights is bound to
the ongoing critique of marriage as an institution.

• Radical feminists reject marriage outright on the basis of marriage as an

oppressive institution.

• Liberal reform feminists support the choice to marry on the understanding that
men and women (or same-sex couples) can conduct their marriages in
nontraditional ways.
Sociological Perspectives on Orientation, and Inequality
Interactionist Perspective

Interactionists also examine the process of how

individuals identify themselves as homosexual, or
the development of a transgendered identity.

• Coming out (being gay and disclosing it to others)

has come to symbolize the pursuit of individual
rights and self-identification.

• Coming out implies not just the disclosure of a gay

identity, but also the individual’s positive attitude
toward and commitment to that identity
Sociological Perspectives on Orientation, and
Inequality
Homophobia - A socially determined prejudice and irrational fear or intolerance of homosexuals.
• Homophobia is particularly directed at gay men.
• Why not lesbian women?

Transphobia - (or less commonly transprejudice) is a range of antagonistic attitudes and feelings
against transsexuality and transsexual or transgender ...

Self-Identity and GSM

• Can GSM people be biased themselves?
• Is there a difference between homophobia and racism?

Lesbian Mother Suit:

http://www.nbcnews.com/watch/nbc-news/jennifer-cramblett-i-cant-let-them-do-this-to-ano
ther-family-336553539944
Institutionalized Heterosexism

Refers to established Laws, customs, and Practices that systematically Discriminate

against people who are not heterosexual
Is the Demand for Gay Rights Really a Demand for Special
Privileges?

Gay Rights means that gay men and lesbians who are openly
gay should not be deprived of their civil rights as American
citizens
Sexual Orientation and Social Movements
This movement that started in the 60’s spread to other areas including to people
with homosexual orientations.

The terms Gay and Lesbian

• Express a way of life by persons who desire, and have sex, with people of the
same sex
• Refer to a community of experience that homosexual identified individuals
share and construct in an ongoing fashion.
Sexual Orientation and Social Movements
Political mobilization among LGBTQ men and lesbians seek
citizenship right and privileges:
• The right to a safe, healthy and gratifying life within the
structure of and norms of gay and mainstream culture. (what
does this mean?)

The LGBTQ movement assumes that:

1. Sexual desire forms the basis for building a community (is this
different from the straight community?)
2. Individuals, through collective action, can alter a society by
expressing a common set of needs, feelings and experiences.
3. Sexual orientation is a human attribute.
• Like gender, it should be understood as an aspect of human
nature and validated as a social practice.
Sexual Orientation and Social Movements

The general goals of the gay and lesbian movement is protection from
discrimination in:
1. Housing
2. Health
3. Employment
4. Health Insurance
5. Domestic Partnerships (same-sex marriage) Achieved (Obergefell v.
Hodges)
6. Parenting
7. Kinship

Same Sex Marriage States May 2015

Legal Protection of LBGT
A majority of Americans support equal rights for gays and lesbians.
Legal Protection of LBGT
Do Studies report Discrimination against Gay Men and
Lesbians?
• 15-43% of L G B T people have been discriminated against at work
• 8-17% have been fired or pressured to quit a job
• 90% of transgender employees experienced harassment at work
How can Homosexuals be Discriminated Against If they
Don’t Reveal their Identity?

• Closeted employees tend not to socialize as much as

their heterosexual peers
• may not be selected for promotions and other
opportunities
• Closeted employees cannot claim health care and other
benefits for their partners
• Do not receive compensation equal to their
heterosexual peers

Exxon Training Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQW3PkRJpSY

Why have Gay Couples Demanded the Right to Marry?

Marriage is a secular,legal right that allows partners to be

eligible for benefits that heterosexuals enjoy
(Health care, insurance, etc.)
What Harm is Done to a Child Raised by Gay Parents?

37% of LGBTQ+ adults have cared for a child at some

point in their lives
• Parenting research shows that children in these
homes receive good parenting
• These children often exceed children of heterosexual
parents in
– developing social skills
– building self-confidence
– promoting tolerance of others
Why does the Military now Accept Openly Gay
Recruits?

Gays have historically served in the military

Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell (D A D T) failed
Americans overwhelmingly rejected D A D T and supported gays openly serving in the military
Harassment of LGBTQ+ Students in Schools (2010)

• 74.1% have been victims of verbal harassment

• 36.2% have been physically harassed
• 16.5% have been physically assaulted
• When adults (teachers/staff) witnessed harassment,
62% of the time these adults said nothing and did
nothing in response
Concept Check (1 of 4)
What is NOT true about scientific research on sexuality?
A. Few mammals, besides humans, have been found to
engage in sexual activity for pleasure.
B. No animals engage in public sex.
C. Most mammals only have sex when the females of
the species ovulate.
D. Most mammals live individually and meet only to
have sex.
Concept Check (2 of 4)
Historical research on sexuality shows that
A. distinctions between “heterosexuality” and
“homosexuality” are relatively modern.
B. homosexual behavior didn’t exist prior to 1950.
C. sex for pleasure has always been a part of Western
sexual ideologies.
D. human sexuality used to fit in clear-cut, binary
categories.
Concept Check (3 of 4)
Sexual identities intersect with other identities, such as
A. race.
B. gender.
C. nationality.
D. all of the above.
Concept Check (4 of 4)
What does the term sexuality NOT encompass?
A. desires
B. beliefs
C. behaviors
D. food consumption
Discussion Questions
• What do you think of Guest’s first definition of sexuality? Does it
properly define the topic?
⎼ Could an activity such as kissing be considered “sex” under this
definition?
• What role does consumer culture play in the “traditional” American
wedding?
• What role does the U.S. government play in weddings?
• How would you rank the influences on your own personality among
race, gender, and sexuality?
Credits
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