Concrete Technology

S. SURENDHAR, M.E.
 Concrete Technology
• Concrete technology deals with the study of
properties of concrete and its practical
applications.
• Concrete is one of the widely used construction
material across the world and hence it becomes
essential to have a better understanding of it
 Concrete
• Concrete is a composite construction material
consisting of hard, chemically inert aggregates
that is bonded together by pasty substance usually
made of a binding material mixed with water
• Cement is the most commonly used binding
material.
Cement Concrete ingredients
Cement Binder

Coarse aggregate Strength

Fine aggregate Void filler

Hydration

Concrete Workability
Water
Curing

Admixtures Chemicals
 Types of Concrete
• Cement concrete
• Lime concrete
• Light weight concrete
• Modified / Special concrete
 Cement
• Cement is a binder, a material used in construction
that sets, hardens and adheres to other materials
to bind them together
 Ingredients and Sources
Lime : limestone, chalk, shells, shale or calcareous rock
Silica : from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock
Alumina : from bauxite, recycled Aluminum,
clay Iron : from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly

ash Gypsum : found together with limestone

 Chemical composition of cement
• Binding property and strength
• excess makes cement unsound
1 Lime CaO 62 % • Deficiency – Quick setting of cement
• Lime ↑ Slow setting
• C2S, C3S – Strength contribution
2 Silica SiO2 22 % • Excess – Strength ↑ , Prolong setting time
• imparts quick setting property
• Act as a flux to reduce clinkering
3 Alumina Al2O3 5%
temperature (2000oC 
1500oC)
• Produce more heat at time of
hydration
• Gypsum - increase the initial setting time
4 Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 4% • Added to rotary kiln at time of final grinding
5 Iron oxide Fe2O3 3% • imparts colour, Hardness and strength

6 Magnesia MgO 2% • Yellowish tint, excess  unsound

7 Sulphur S 1% • excess makes cement unsound

 Bogue’s compounds

1 Dicalcium silicate (Belite) C2 S 2CaO.SiO2

2 Tricalcium silicate (Alite) C3 S 3CaO.SiO2
3 Tricalcium aluminate (Celit) C3 A 3CaO.Al2O3

4 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (Felit) C4AF 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3

Chemical composition of cement
1 Tricalcium aluminate (Celite) C 3A
2 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4AF
First formed – within 24 hours
10 %
No strength contribution
2nd formed – within 24 hours
8%
No strength contribution

3 Dicalcium silicate (Belite) C2 S 20 % Progressive strength

4 Tricalcium silicate (Alite) C3 S 55 % Early strength

5 Sodium oxide Na2O <2%

6 Potassium oxide K 2O <2%

7 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 5% Control setting time of cement

Manufacturing of cement

1 Mixing of raw materials

2 Burning

3 Grinding
 Calcareous material Argillaceous material

1
(Lime stone) (Clay)

Crushing Crushing
Mixing of
raw materials Grinding
Ball mill Ball mill
Grinding
Tube mill Tube mill

Storage Storage
basin basin

Mixing in correct proportion

Pre-heating @ 800oC

Storage tank
 2 Burning
Heated air

Raw
materials

Clinker
forming
temperature

1
25
(1 in 25 to 1 in
30)
Cooling zone

Clinker
3-20 mm
95oC
Rotary kiln
3 Grinding

Add 4 % gypsum
Ball mill (large balls)
Tube mill (Small balls)
 Characteristics of cement
High compressive strength
Flexible and easy mouldable
Easy to handle and use
Good binding property
Cement never gets rusted
Cement is a bad
conductor of electricity
 Types of cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Rapid Hardening Cement
3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Sulphate Resisting Cement
5. Portland Slag Cement
6. Quick Setting Cement
7. Super Sulphated Cement
8. Low Heat Cement
9. Portland Pozzolana Cement – fly ash based and calcined clay based

10. Air Entraining Cement

11. Coloured Cement (White Cement/Snowcem)
12. Hydrophobic Cement
13. Masonry Cement
14. Expanding Cement
15. Rediset Cement
16. High Alumina cement
 Uses of cement
For making concrete for various
structures Mortar for plastering
Masonry works
Pointing
works
Floors, roof, beam, column, footing, lintel, etc
For construction of engineering structures
1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Grades
• 33 Grade  min 33 N/mm2 strength (M20)
• 43 Grade  min 43 N/mm2 strength (Normal RCC works)
• 53 Grade  min 53 N/mm2 strength

 For > M30

 Can reduce cement by 10 – 15 %
 Can reduce steel by 5 – 8 %
 High rise buildings, chimney, etc
 2 Rapid Hardening Cement
• Speedly (rapidly) attains strength (3 days)
• Initial and final setting time same as OPC
• Higher C3S and lower C2S content
(56 %)

Progressive strength
early stage strength

• Where speed of construction is needed

• pre-fabricated concrete construction
• Road repair works
 3 Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

• RHC + Calcium chloride

• Transported, placed, compacted & finished within about 20 minutes
• Accelerates the setting and hardening process
• Strength 25 % higher than RHC

Uses
• Concreting in cold weather
 4 Sulphate Resisting Cement

• Resistant to sulphate attack

• low C3A content (below 5 % only)
• Has high silicate content  High sulphate resisting ability

Uses
• Sewage treatment works, marine structures
 5 Portland Slag Cement

• OPC + Granulated blast furnace slag

• Low heat of hydration
• Resistance to chemical attacks
• Resistance to corrosion of steel reinforcement

Uses
• RCC
 6 Quick Setting Cement

• Sets fastly
• Alumnina ↑
• Gypsum ↓
• Initial setting time = 5 minutes
• Final setting time = 30 minutes

Uses
• Pumping Concrete works
7 Super Sulphated Cement

• Granulated slag + gypsum + 5 % Portland cement

clinker
• Low heat of hydration
• High sulphate resistance

Uses
• Marine works
 8 Low Heat Cement

• Opposite of high alumina cement

• Less heat is produced at time of hydration
• Low C3S , C3A reduced
• Slow rate of gain of strength
• Same ultimate strength of OPC
• Initial setting time = 1 hour
• Final setting time = 10 hour Uses
• Dams, mass concrete works
9 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

• OPC clinker + 10 - 35 % pozzolanic material

• Clinker replaced by cheaper pozzolanic material (Fly ash or Calcined clay)
• PPC gives more volume of mortar than OPC.
• Longer setting times
• Sulphate resistant
• Less compressive strength at early stages

Uses

• Sewage works, under water works, normal works

10 Hydrophobic Cement

• Afraid of water !!
• Reduces wetting ability of cement
• Helps to reduce w/c ratio
• Contains admixtures – Acidol
- Napthene soap
- Oxidized petrolatum
• frost and water resistance
11 Acid resistant cement

• Binding material : Soluble gas

• Do not resist water

To resist water add

0.5 % linseed oil or
2 % ceresit
12 Coloured cement (Snowcem)

5 – 10 % pigment
Chromium oxide - Green
Cobalt - Blue
Manganese dioxide –
Black/Brown
13 Expanding cement
Expanding agent: Sulpho Aluminate
14 High Alumina cement
Alumina ↑ – 32 % - Quick setting
𝟏
Initial setting time = 3𝟐 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬

Final setting time = 5 hours

By fusing Lime stone + Bauxite, Gypsum not
added

Less time, more strength

In England  Cement Fondu
In America  Lumnite
 Properties of cement
• Binder material (adhesive and cohesive property)
• On adding water Hydration (Exothermic reaction-Heat)
• Fineness < 10 % of its original weight
• Initial setting time of OPC = 30 min
• Final setting time of OPC = 600 min
• Specific gravity of OPC = 3.15
• Normal consistency for OPC ranges from 26 to 33%
 Tests on cement
Field tests Laboratory tests

1. Fineness
2. Specific gravity
3. Consistency
4. Setting time
5. Soundness
6. Compressive strength
7. Tensile strength
 Field testing of cement
1. Open the bag and take a good look at the cementc- no visible lumps.

2. Colour = Greenish grey

3. Should get a cool feeling when touched.

4. Take a pinch of cement and feel (rub) between the fingers, It should
give a smooth feeling and not a gritty feeling
5. When we throw the cement on a bucket full of water, before it
sinks the particle should float
1 Fineness Test on Cement
Degree to which the cement is grinded
into smaller and smaller particles

Using 90 micron IS Sieve

Air permeability method

Hydration of cement
During mixing of cement with water, chemical
reaction take place between them. Heat is
liberated.

Apparatus required:

IS Sieve 90 micron cement weighing balance

 Procedure
1. Break down any air-set lumps in the cement
sample with fingers.
2.Weigh 100 grams of cement in IS 90 micron
3.Continuously sieve the sample for 15 minutes
4.Weigh the residue left after 15 minutes of sieving.
5.This completes the test.
 𝑨
Fineness = 𝑩
x 100

A = Weight of cement retained on 90 micron IS sieve

(15 minutes)
B = Total weight of sample

Rule in this experiment

For ordinary Portland cement (OPC) fineness should not be more

than 10 % of original weight as per IS code.
2 Specific gravity of cement

weight of a given volume of the cement

Gc = weight of equal volume of water

Standard value: 3.15

Apparatus required:

Specific gravity bottle weighing balance

 w1 w4
w2 w3 w5
w1 = weight of empty bottle
w2 = weight of bottle + cement
w3 = weight of bottle + cement + kerosene
w4 = weight of bottle + kerosene full
w5 = weight of bottle + water
Specific gravity of the kerosene
w4 − 𝑤1
weight of kerosene
Gk = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑤 −𝑤
5 1
𝑤𝑎 𝑡𝑒 𝑟

Specific gravity of the cement

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Gc =
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒆

𝐰𝟐−𝒘𝟏
Gc = x Gk
𝒘𝟒−𝒘𝟏 −(𝒘𝟑−𝒘𝟐)
 Standard/Normal Consistency
Standard Plunger (10 mm dia, 50 mm long)

Initial Setting time

Square needle (1 mm)

Final Setting time

Vicat Apparatus Needle with annular collar
3 Standard consistency of cement

 Relative mobility of a freshly

mixed cement paste
 Ability of cement to flow.
 Easiness of work with
cement
Apparatus required:

weighing balance

Vicat apparatus
Trowel
 + Cement paste
Gauging time
( 3-5 minutes)
400 g cement 25 % water by
weight of dry cement

Repeat the process till the standard consistency

(Water % for 33-35 mm penetration from top) is got

Generally normal consistency for

OPC ranges from 26 to 33%.
Procedur
e
1. Take 400 g cement
2. Add 25 % water by weight of dry cement
3. Prepare cement paste within 3-5 minutes (Gauging time)
4. Fill in Vicat mould
5. Attach standard plunger above the test block
6. Release plunger and note depth of penetration
7. If penetration ranges from 33-35 mm from top, it is standard
consistency for given cement.
8. Else add 1 % more water and repeat the experiment till we
get standard consistency.
4 Initial and final setting time

Initial setting time:

The time elapsed between the moment water is added to

the cement to the time at which cement paste starts
losing its plasticity.

For OPC > 30 minutes

Final setting time:

The period elapsing between the time water is added to

the cement and the time the needle makes an impression
on the surface of the test block

For OPC < 10 hours or 600 minutes

Procedure
1. Take 300 g cement
2. Add 0.85 times water required for standard consistency
3. Start stop watch
4. Prepare cement paste within 3-5 minutes (Gauging time)
5. Fill in Vicat mould
6. Attach square needle above the test block
7. Release square needle. In beginning needle penetrates completely.
8. Paste starts losing its plasticity.
9. Release after half an hour, the needle penetrates 33-35 mm from top.
Stop watch and note the time (initial setting time).
10.Replace needle with annular collar needle. Check after 10 hours.
11.Note the no impression forming time (final setting time).
5 Soundness test

• Soundness = Ability of hardened cement paste to

retain its volume after setting without expansion.

• Reason: insufficiency in grinding, burning, etc

• Ensures:
 Cement does not undergo any large
expansion
 To detect the presence of excess lime in
cement
• Le Chatelier test detects unsoundness due to free lime only

• Expansion should be less than 10 mm

• OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement
• RHC – Rapid Hardening Cement
• Low Heat Portland Cement

• If expansion of cement > 10 mm

• Unsound
• Excess lime  Cracks
 Paste
Take a
0.78 x P
sample of
100
Cover
grams
with
cement.
glass
sheet

Fill in Le chatelier apparatus

Expansion = d2 – d1

Immerse in water, 24 hrs, 270C

Note the
distance b/w Boil 3 hrs – reach boiling Note the distance b/w pointers
pointers after Cool point within 25-30 minutes before boiling – d1
boiling – d2
6 Compressive strength of cement

• Cube size = 7.06 X 7.06 X 7.06

• Face area = 50 cm2
Module 1:

Structural Building Materials

Stones Clay Tiles Lime

Cement Puzzolana Aggregates Mortar
Concrete Timber Metals Non-Metals
1 Stones Naturally available building material
Obtained from rocks

Classification of rocks

Geological Physical Chemical

1. Igneous 1. Stratified 1. Siliceous

2. Sedimentary 2. Unstratified 2. Argillaceous
3. Metamorphic 3. Foliated 3. Calcareous
1 Igneous rocks
Formed by cooling of magma

Molten/pasty
rocky material
High
temperature
 Igneous rocks

Volcanic Hypabyssal Plutonic

Earth’s surface Shallow depth Considerable depth

Rapid cooling Fast cooling Slow cooling

Extremely fine Fine grained Coarse grained

glassy structure crystalline structure crystalline structure

Eg:- Basalt, trap Eg:- Dolerite Eg:- Granite

2 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentation through agencies like
water, wind or glaciers

Weathering  Transportation 
Sedimentation
Examples
Chalk
Kankar
Limestone

Sandstone
Gravel
Gypsum
 Types of Deposits

Residual Sedimentary Chemical Organic

fine weathered particles get washed away

Parent rock
weathered coarser particles
remains in the origin site and sets in layers
 Types of Deposits

Residual Sedimentary Chemical Organic

insoluble fine agents/rain

Parent rock
weathered agg deposited as
layers
 Types of Deposits

Residual Sedimentary Chemical Organic

Deposited by physio-chemical process.

Eg:- Evaporation, precipitation

Tsunami, acid rain, etc.

 Types of Deposits

Residual Sedimentary Chemical Organic

Deposited through agency of organisms.

Eg: Bacteria
Vegetable wastes, human Soil (Organic deposits)
3 Metamorphic rocks
Formed by the change in
character of pre-existing rocks.

Agents:
Heat, Pressure, Chemically acting fluids
 Igneous agents Change-in re-establish Metamorphic
Sedimentary loss eqm equilibrium rocks
character
 Igneous agents Change-in re-establish Metamorphic
Sedimentary loss eqm rocks
character equilibrium

Examples:-
Granite  Gneiss
Basalt  Laterite/Schist
Limestone  Marble
 Slate
Mudstone
Siliceous sand  Quartzite
 Igneous agents Change-in re-establish Metamorphic
Sedimentary loss eqm rocks
character equilibrium

Examples:-
Granite  Gneiss (High compressive strength)
Basalt
 Laterite/Schist
Limestone  Marble (Specific gravity = 2.72)
 Slate
Mudstone
Siliceous sand  Quartzite
 Types of Metamorphism

Thermal Cataclastic Dynamo-thermal Plutonic

Heat Pressure Heat + Stress Uni. Pressure

+ Heat
 Physical classification

Stratified Unstratified Foliated

Distinct layers No distinct layers Layered structure

Can easily split along Can’t split in desired Split easily along
planes of cleavage layers. planes of foliation.

Compact crystalline Sedi.rocks MetaMor

Eg:- Eg:- Eg:-

Sedimentary rocks Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks
 Chemical classification

Siliceous Argillaceous Calcareous

High silica content High clay/Alumina High CaCO3 content
content
Eg:- Eg:-
High fire resistance
Granite, Quartzite Limestone, Marble
Eg:-
Slate, Laterite
Clay minerals
- Kaolin,
Illite
- Montmor
 Classification of rocks
Geological Physical Chemical
1) Igneous rocks 1) Stratified rocks 1) Siliceous rock
- Formed by cooling of magma - Have planes of cleavage - High silica content
- Can split into layers - Eg:- Granite, Quartzite
- Eg:- Granite, Dolerite, Basalt
- Eg:- Sedimentary rocks
Plutonic, Hypabyssal, Volcanic

2) Sedimentary rocks 2) Unstratified rocks 2) Argillaceous rocks

- Due to weathering action - No distinct layers - High clay content
of water, wind and frost - Eg:- Igneous rocks - Eg:- Slate, Laterite
- Eg:- Gravel, Gypsum,
limestone
3) Foliated rocks 3) Calcareous rocks
3) Metamorphic rocks - Rocks having a tendency to split - High CaCO3 content
- Formed by change in character up in a definite direction only - Durability depends on
of existing rocks when subjected surrounding
- Eg:- Metamorphic rocks
to heat and pressure materials
- Eg:- Quartzite, slate, marble - Eg:- Marble, Lime
Note:

Gneiss is obtained from sedimentary metamorphic rocks

Shingle – decomposed laterite
Diamond – Kimberlite (Igneous rock) – Hardest rock
Talc – Softest rock
 Characteristics of a good building stone

1 Crushing Strength > 100 N/mm2

2 Appearance Uniform colour

3 Durability Long lasting in changing weather conditions

4 Fracture Sharp, even and clear fracture

5 Hardness  > 17 = Hard = used in

roads
 14-17 = Medium hardness
 < 14 = Poor Hardness
6 Percentage wear ≤ 3 %
 Characteristics of a good building stone
7 Good Fire resistance
8 Specific gravity > 2.7

9 Texture  Have compact fine crystalline structure

 Should be free from cavities, cracks or patches

% absorption by weigth after 24 hours

10 Water absorption should not exceed 0.60

11
Seasoning Upto 6-12 months
 < 13 = not
12 Toughness index tough
- Impact test  13-19 = Moderate
 Varieties of stones
Granite
• Igneous rock – Plutonic
• Composed of quartz + feldspar + Silica
• Available in colors: Grey, Green, Brown, Pink, Red
• Hard, durable, high resistance to weathering
• Specific gravity = 2.7
• Compressive strength = 700 – 1300 N/mm2.
• Uses: Ornamental works, flooring, walls etc
 Varieties of stones
Trap rock

• Igneous rock - Volcanic

• Dark colour
• Specific gravity = 2.8 –
3.0 Eg:- Basalt
Uses : As crushed rocks,
railway ballast
 Varieties of stones
Basalt

• Igneous rock - Volcanic

• Compact, Hard
• Colour: Red, Yellow, Grey, Blue
• Specific gravity = 3

• Compressive strength = 1530 – 1890 N/mm2.

• Uses: aggregates for concrete, ornamental works

 Varieties of stones
Sand Stone

• Sedimentary rock
• Fine/coarse grained
• Specific gravity = 2.65 – 2.95
• Compressive strength = 650 N/mm2.
• Used for Ashlar works
 Varieties of stones
Laterite

• Sedimentary rock
• Hard and durable
• Rich in Fe and Al
• Colour : Rusty red
(high iron oxide content)

• Uses: Building blocks

Load bearing capacities of stones
 Quarrying of stones
Process of extracting or taking out stones
from natural rock beds.

Quarry – Exposed surface of a natural rock

Quarry Site – Site from where stones are taken
 Selection of quarry site
• Availability – tools, materials and labour
• Quality of building stone should not vary with depth
• Distance should be min from transportation facilities
• Space for disposal of refuse and quarry wastes - near
• Geological information about the site
• Availability of water
• No health hazards at site
• Results of trial pits
 Methods of quarrying
With hand tools With channelling By blasting
- Cut - When rock is hard and unfissured
1) Digging/Excavating channmelsaofcsuhffiicnieent - Operations involved:
- For digging soft stones
depth 1. Boring
- Hand tools: pick axle,
along three sides 2. Charging
hammer, shovel, chisel, etc
- There should be an exposed face 3. Tamping
4. Firing
2) Heating other than top face.
- Horizontal holes are driven beneath - Produce irregular sized stones
- Differential expansion separates -
the block from exposed face. Explosives used to blast rocks
upper layer from lower layer
- Block is lifted from its bed.
3) Wedging Eg:- Granite, Marble

- Steel wedges are used

- In rocks with cracks and
fissures
 Materials for blasting
Detonators Explosives Fuses
- Whose explosion - Dynamite and - To ignite explosives
initiates explosion
- Small rope of cotton with
of another Blasting powder
a core of continuous
(Gun powder)
- Used when dynamite thread of gun powder
is used as explosive Charcoal
Saltpetre (KNO3)
Sulphur
- Fired either by
fuse or spark Sandy powder
(25%)
Nitro-glycerine (75
- Use: Ordinary %)
quarrying works
- Uses: Tunnelling
Mining operations
Under water
Other explosives used in blasting:

1. Gelatine – 50 % more powerful than dynamite

2. Cordite – under water, no smoke
3. Gelignite – under water
4. Gun cotton
5. Liquid oxygen – large scale (mining, under water)
6. Rock-a-rock
 Dressing of stone
• Quarried stones are cut into suitable size and shape
• To Provide pleasing appearance
• To make transportation easier
• To provide good horizontal and vertical joints in masonry
• To obtain good bonding

Types of dressing
1. Quarry dressing
2. Site dressing
Deterioration of stones
1. Alternate wetness and drying
2. Frost
3. Impurities in atmosphere
4. Living organisms
5. Movement of chemicals
6. Rain water
7. Temperature variations
8. Vegetable growth
9. Wind
 Clay Products
2 Clay Products
Ceramics Potter’s art
(‘Keramos’-Greek) Articles made by the potter

Clay products Refractories Glass

 Bricks
Porcelain

Tiles

Clay
products
Stoneware

Terra-cotta

Earthenware
 Bricks
Obtained by moulding clay
in rectangular blocks
of uniform size
and then by drying and
burning.
Composition of brick earth:
Chief constituent
1 Alumina 20-30 % imparts
plasticity
Excess –
shrinkage and
warping
Prevent cracking, shrinking & warping
2 Silica 50-60 % Imparts uniform shape to bricks
Durability of bricks depends mainly
Prevents shrinkage
3 Lime < 5% Excess – lime melts and shape losts
Helps lime to fuse sand
4 Iron Oxide 5-6 % Imparts red colour
Excess – blackish, less
- yellowish
Imparts yellow tint
 Harmful ingredients in brick earth

Alkalis – deform and twist brick

Lime – on heating converted into quick lime – brittle  crumbles

Iron pyrites
Pebbles

Vegetation and organic matter

 - Removing top 20 cm clay layer
Unsoiling
- Impurities, trees, etc are removed
Digging - Manually or using power excavators
Operations involved
Cleaning - Roots, pebbles, lime, organic matter
1.Preparation of clay
Manufacturing of bricks

- Softening clay by adding little water

Weathering
and exposing to atmosphere
Blending - Tests for suitability
- Kneading by adding water to get a
Tempering or pugging
Homogenous mass & reqd
Hand moulding plasticity
2. Moulding
Machine moulding

Natural
3. Drying
Artificial
Clamp
4. Burning burning
Kiln burning
Pug mil
 2. Moulding

Hand moulding Machine moulding

Classification: • Clay placed in the machine

1. Ground moulded bricks • it comes out through the
2. Table moulded bricks opening under pressure.

• It is cut to bricks by
steel
wires fixed into frames.
• Rectangular boxes of wood or steel

• Open at top and bottom

Classification:
1. Plastic clay machines
2. Dry clay machines
 3. Drying

Natural Drying Artificial Drying

• To avoid cracks and distortion • To avoid cracks and distortion

• In a drying yard • Drying by tunnels usually

1200C about 1 to 3 days
• Good circulation of air
• Machine arrangements

Wet mix contain

7-30 %
moisture
 4. Burning

Clamp burning Kiln burning

Intermittent Continuous
kilns kilns

1. Load
2. Fire
3. Cool
4. Unload
Clamp burning
• Trapezoidal shape
• End raised at 150 from ground level
• Brick wall in mud at short end
• Alternate layers of raw bricks and fuels.
• Fuels - grass, cow dung, wood
• Air circulation spaces provided
• Total height of clamp = 3-4 m

• Plastered with mud on sides and top,

filled with earth to prevent the escape of
heat
• Burning Period = 1-2 months
• Cooling period = 1-2 months
• Burnt bricks are taken out from the
clamp
Advantages
• Tough and strong bricks  burning and cooling are gradual
• Cheap and economical
• No skilled labour and supervision required
• Saving of clamps fuel

Disadvantages
• Bricks are not of required shape
• It is very slow process
• It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp
• Quality of brick is not uniform
Kiln burning
 Kiln burning • A kiln is a large oven to burn bricks
• 2-3 brick row
• Trolleys used for movement of bricks
Intermittent kilns
• Loading of kiln with raw bricks
• Each door is built up with dry bricks and
are covered with mud or clay

• Fire period = 48 to 60 hours

• Cool period = 12 days

• Bricks are then taken out

• Same procedure is repeated for the

next
burning
Advantages of kiln burning

• Bricks are evenly burnt

• Performance of this kiln is better

• Suitable for burning of structural clay tiles, terra cota  close control of
heat
 Continous kilns

Bull’s trench kiln Hoffman’s kiln Tunnel kiln

• Rectangular, circular or oval • Also called flame kiln • Form of a tunnel

• Trench excavated in ground • Plan – circular shape • Straight, circular or oval

• Widely used kiln in India • Permanent roof provided • Trolley transportation

• Function in Rainy season also • Large scale - economical

Comparison of clamp and kiln burning
Clamp burning Kiln burning
1 Capacity 2000 - 100000 Avg = 25000
2 Cost of fuel Low – grass, cow dung, wood High - coal
3 Initial cost Less More – Permanent structure
4 Quality Good = 60 % Good = 90 %
5 Fire regulation Not possible to control Possible
6 Skilled supervision No Yes
7 Structure Temporary Permanent
8 Suitability Small scale Large scale
9 Burning time 1-2 months 2-3 days
10 Cooling time 1-2 months 12 days
 IS specifications of bricks
(Classification)

Unburnt bricks Burnt bricks

• Sun dried bricks • Ringing sound

First class
• For good and permanent works
• Used only in the
constructions of • Rough and slightly irregular
Second class
temporary and cheap • Brick work + plastering works
structures
• Bad ringing sound
Third class
• Heavy rains - X • Unimp and temp structures

Fouth class • over burnt bricks with irregular

shape and dark colour
Characteristics of good brick
1. Free from cracks and have sharp edges
2. Uniform shape and size
3. Should give clear ringing sound when struck each other
4. Compact and free from voids
5. Bricks should not absorb water when soaked for 24
hours • 1st class  max = 20 percent by weight
• 2nd class  max = 22 percent by weight
Characteristics of good brick

6. No impression when scratched

7. Low thermal conductivity
8. When fall from 1 m height  should not break
9. Crushing strength > 55 kg/cm2
10. Sound proof
 Bricks
Porcelain

Tiles

Clay
products
Stoneware

Terra-cotta

Earthenware
 Tiles
Thin slabs of bricks which are burnt in kilns
Thinner than bricks ⸫ handle carefully
Bricks may be glazed or unglazed
They are incombustible in
nature Tiles are unaffected
under light
 Manufacture of tiles

1 Preparation of clay Fine clay is used

2 Moulding Clay is pressed in Pattern/Shapes

Drying under a shade prevents warping

3 Drying and cracking of tiles due to rain and sun

Sialkot kiln
4 Burning
Characteristics of a good tile
1 Free from cracks and bends
2 Regular in shape and size
3 Well burnt, hard and durable
4 Gives clear ringing sound when struck with hand

5 Fit properly when placed in position

6 Uniform colour and compact structure

 Types of tiles
Based on application Material & Manufacture

1. Roofing tiles 1. Ceramic tiles

a) Earthenware tiles
2. Flooring tiles b) Terracotta and faience
3. Wall tiles c) Fully vitrified tiles
d) Glazed tiles
4. Partition tiles e) Stoneware Tile
5. Pavement tiles 2. Porcelain tiles
3. Mosaic tiles
6. Drain tiles 4. Natural stone tiles
1. Roofing tiles Types of roofing tiles
To keep out rain
Shelter 1 Allahabad tiles
Made of 2 Corrugated tiles
clay/slate

Modern materials : 3Flat tiles 4

concrete and plastic
Eg: Flat tile 5 Manglore tiles Double channeled
Basel Mission
Eg: Flat tile Manglore Pattern

5 Pan tiles
Pot
tiles
2. Floor tiles 3. Wall tiles 4. Drain tiles
Used for flooring works Interior and exterior Drain water through it
Flat in shape walls
Tiles with holes
Made of ceramic, stone, Decoration purpose
Porous
or glass
Toilets
Available in various Avoids flooding of
textures water
 5. Partition tiles 6. Pavement tiles
Used for partition of spaces in a room Also called as inter-locks
Thinner partitions Used as pavements
Sub divide areas into room Provision for drainage
 1. Ceramic tiles
Clay, sand, and other natural substances.
Commonly used in residential buildings
Mainly used in interior walls and floors

Ceramic coating

Clay
 2. Porcelain tiles
A type of ceramic tiles
Clay grains used are finer than ceramic tiles
Mainly used in interior walls and floors
Fired at higher temperature than ceramic
tiles
Denser, less porous and more resistant to
moisture and stains than ceramic tiles
Suitable for both indoor and outdoor works
Harder, but low water absorption
 Vitrified tiles Glazed tiles
Ceramic tile with very low porosity Liquid glass coating of
thickness 0.1 - 0.2
Clay + quartz + feldspar + silica mm
Alternative to marble and granite
Stain resistant
flooring
Easy to clean
Ceramic material in full
thickness Fade resistance

Ceramic coating

Clay Vitrified tiles

 3. Terra-cotta
Terra – “earth”, cotta – “based”
Also called as “Baked earth”
Clay product made by careful
burning
A kind of earthware which is
soft and porous
High Alumina and iron oxide content
Less proportion of sand and lime
 Manufacture of terra-cotta

1 Preparation of clay Crushed pottery used

2 Moulding Zinc + Plaster of paris

3 Drying

Muffle furnace
4 Burning
 Varieties of terra-cotta
1. Porous terra-cotta
Wood powder/saw dust added
Fire and sound proof

2. Polished (fine) terra-cotta

Also known as fine terra-cotta or Faience
Ornamental purpose

Heating at 650oC Immerse in Heating at 1200oC

terra-cotta Top surface glazed
Biscuiting glazing compounds Salt/lead solution
 Earthenware
Ware means articles
Clay + Sand + Crushed pottery
Generally soft and porous
Clay burnt at low temperature and cooled slowly
Terra-cotta is a kind of earthenware
Uses: Ordinary drain pipe, pottery, vessels
 Stoneware
Clay burnt at high temperature and cooled slowly
Generally Hard and non-porous
Can easily clean
Uses: Sanitary appliances, closets,
wash basins, pipes
Comparison of Earthenware and Stone ware

Attribute Earthenware Stoneware

Temperature of
low high
baking
Cooling Slowly Slowly

Porosity Porous Non-porous

Hardness Soft Hard

Durable Less More

Expense Less More

 Porcelain (Whiteware)
Fine earthenware – white and semi
transparent Clay + felspar + Quartz +
minerals
Hard, brittle and non-porous
Uses: Sanitarywares, electric insulators, storage
vessels
Two types
1. Low voltage porcelain – prepared by dry process
2. High Voltage porcelain – prepared by wet process
 Lime
• Important cementing material
• Used in old times instead of cement
• Chemically: CaO

• Uses:
Ordinary buildings
Massive monuments
Palaces
Forts

84
 Sources of lime
1. Limestone hills
2. Seashells
3. Corals
4. Kankar (Below ground level)
5. Beds of old rivers
 Important technical terms
1. Calcination
Heating to redness in presence of air
2. Hydraulicity
Ability to set in presence of water and in absence of air
3. Lime
Calcination
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
(Limestone) (Lime)

Note: CaCO3  Most stable form of lime

Impurity in lime = clay
 Important technical terms
4. Slaking
Chemical reaction occurring when water is added to lime

CaO + H2O Slaking Ca(OH)2

(Lime) (Slaked lime)

Note: Slaked lime is used for white washing

5. Setting
Process of hardening of lime after it has been converted
into paste form.
Manufacture of fat lime
 Classification
Based on clay content BIS Classification

1. Quick (Fat/pure) lime Class A

2. Hydraulic (Slaked) lime Class

B
3. Poor (lean) lime
Class C
Class
D
Class E
 1. Quick (Fat/Pure/Caustic) lime
Product left immediately after calcination of pure lime stone
Clay content – less than 5 %
Also known as white lime, rich lime, high calcium lime, etc
When slaked, volume increases by 2-2.5 %
No hydraulicity
To get hydraulicity, add Surkhi (powder of burned bricks)
 2. Hydraulic (Slaked/water) lime
Clay content – 10 to 30 %

Feebly H.L Moderately H.L Eminently H.L

Clay content – 5 to 10 % Clay content – 11 to 20 % Clay content – 21 to 30 %
Slaking is faster Slakes after 1 to 2 hours Slakes with difficulty
(few minutes)
Setting is moderate Setting is fast (1 day)
Setting is slow (3 week) (1 week) More strength (Similar to
Used for ordinary ordinary cement)
Used for superior type
masonry works masonry works Used for under water
works, damp places, etc
 3. Poor (lean lime)
Also known as “impure lime”
Clay content – greater than 30 %
 BIS Classification of lime

1. Class A - Eminently H.L – Structural purposes

2. Class B - Semi H.L – Masonry works

3. Class C - Fat lime – White washing

4. Class D - Mg/Dolomite lime – finishing coat in plastering

5. Class E - Kankar – masonry mortar, soil stabilization

6. Class F - Silicious dolomite lime – under coat and finishing

coat in white washing
 Pozzolana
A natural siliceous and aluminous material
Formed from volcanic ash/other means
Portland cement contains pozzolanas
Pozzolana + Calcium Hydroxide  Pozzolanic reaction
Have binding/cementitious property
Eg:- Surkhi, blast furnace Slag, Rice husk ash
Common puzzolonas used as admixtures in cement

1.Surkhi - Brick dust

- Waste of iron manufacturing
2. Blast furnace Slag
3.Fly ash - Burning of coal

4.Silica Fume - Byproduct of silicon

5. Rice- husk Ash
 Aggregates

Geological Size Shape Unit weight

origin

1. Natural aggregates 1.Coarse 1.Rounded 1.Normal weight

• Igneous > 4.75 mm 2.Irregular 2.Heavy weight
• Sedimentary 3.Flaky 3.Light weight
•Metamorphic 2.Fine 4.Angular
2.Artificial aggregates < 4.75 mm
• Blast furnace
slag
 Sand
• Sand basically consists of Silica (SiO2)
• Formed by decomposition of sandstone due to weathering action.
• Also called as adulterant

Types/sources of Sand

1. Pit sand - angular shape

2. River sand – round shape
3. Sea sand – from sea shore. Contain salts.
4. Sand dunes – desert sand
 Classification of sand

1. Fine sand < 1.5875 mm

2. Coarse sand < 3.175 mm
3. Gravelly sand < 7.62 mm
 Limitations of mining of sand from
rivers and sea shore

• Affects quality of river water

• Disturbs natural equilibrium
• Problems to bridges
• Problems to fishes and river inhabitants
• Contamination of river water
 Alternatives of sand
• Manufactured Sand (M Sand)
• Plastering Sand (P Sand)
• Processed Quarry Dust
• Offshore Sand
• Dune Sand
• Slag Sand
• Construction Demolition Wastes
 M-sand

• Manufactured sand
• Alternative to river sand
• Cost of construction is less
• Low water absorption
• Manufactured by crushing of rocks
• In reality, better than river sand.
 Coarse aggregates
• Size > 4.75 mm
• Major contribution to strength in concrete
• Influences workability & degree of compaction of concrete
• Materials generally used are :

1. Gravel
2. Crushed stone
3. Slag
4. Recycled concrete
5. Geo-synthetic aggregates
Requirements of good coarse aggregates

• Hard, strong and durable

• Free from organic impurities
• Free from grass and roots
• Clay content < 4 %
• Resistance to change in volume
• Well graded
Commonly used sizes for different applications

Different based on type of work. Commonly used are

• Retaining walls and abutments = 75 mm

• Concrete dams = 75 mm
• Roads = 40 mm
• Column and slab = 20 mm
• Self compacting concrete (SCC) = 10 mm
Grading of coarse and fine aggregate

• Particle size distribution of aggregates

• Measured by sieve analysis method
• Described using Grading curve

Gives ‘cumulative % passing’

against standard IS Sieves

• Influences workability & degree of

compaction
• Poorly graded  All particles of aggregate
have same size – more voids
• Well graded  Contains particles of all sizes
(GOOD)

• Gap graded  Some big, some small particles.

 Mortar (Matrix)
• Composite mixture
• Cement + Sand + water (No coarse aggregate)
• Used in plasterings, masonry, etc

Concrete
• Composite mixture
• Easily mouldable
• Cement + Sand + Coarse aggregate + water
• Used in beams, columns, slabs, footings, stairs, etc
 Functions of sand in mortar
1. Void filler
2. Bulking – Sand bulks  volume of mortar increases  Thus cost reduced.

3. Setting – setting of fat lime occurs effectively due to sand

4. Shrinkage – sand prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar & prevent cracking

5. Strength – helps in adjustment of strength by varying its proportion.

Preparation of lime mortar
Prepared by grinding or pounding

1 - Grinding – for large quantities of lime mortar

2 - Pounding – for preparing small quantities
Preparation of cement mortar
Does not require grinding or pounding
Cement and sand are mixed in required proportions in
dry state on a watertight platform

Add water and mix thoroughly

Proportions of mortar for various items of work

No Nature of work Mortar proportion

1 Construction work in waterlogged areas and exposed positions 1:3
2 Damp proof courses and cement concrete roads 1:2
3 General RCC work such as lintels, pillars, slabs, stairs etc 1:3
4 Internal walls 1:3
5 Partition walls and parapet walls CM 1:3 or LM 1:1.
6 Plaster work (finishing mortar) 1:3 to 1:4
7 Pointing work 1:1 to 1:2
8 Brick laying mortar 1:6 to 1:8
 Tests for mortar

1 Adhesiveness to building units

2 Crushing strength

3 Tensile strength
1. Adhesiveness to building units
1. Place two bricks at right angles

2. If size of brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm brick, a

horizontal joint 9 cm x 9 cm = 81 cm2 is formed

3. The upper brick is suspended from an overhead

support and weights are attached to lower brick

4. Weights are gradually increased till separation

of brick occurs

Ultimate adhesive strength = Maximum load

81
 2. Crushing strength
1. Prepare a brickwork with mortar

2. Apply gradual load to this sample brickwork till failure occurs

by crushing.

Ultimate Crushing strength = Maximum load

Cross sectional area
 3. Tensile strength
1. Mortar is placed in briquette mould

2. Briquettes are tested in a tension

testing machine
Manufacture of concrete
Proportioning/Batching concrete
Process of selection of relative proportions of
cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water so as to
obtain a concrete of desired quality.

Process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either

by mass or volume and introducing them into the
mixer.
 Types of Proportioning
1. Volume batching
• Small jobs

2. Weight batching
• Accurate and uniform proportioning
 PCC and RCC

PCC – Plain Cement Concrete – no rebars

RCC – Reinforced Cement Concrete

Structural concrete

• Concrete + steel bars

• Tensile strength of concrete = 7–15 % of
compressive strength
Functions of water in concrete:
• Potable water (drinking water can be used) is used in concrete.
• Water makes the concrete workable
Water lubricates aggregates and facilitates passage of cement through voids.

• Amount of water controls Hydration

• Amount of water controls Curing
• Defines strength of concrete

• Defines shrinkage of concrete

 Water-cement ratio
Amount of water Amount
w/c ratio =
of cement by weight

• Ratio of weight of ‘free water’ (excluding that absorbed

by aggregates) to cement in a mix.

• Strength and quality of cement concrete primarily

depends on w/c ratio
• Strength and quality of cement concrete primarily
depends on w/c ratio
 Abrams Law
Water-cement ratio is inversely proportional to compressive
strength of concrete.

 Low w/c ratio is good

 Advantages of low w/c ratio

• Increases compressive strength

• Lower permeability
• Increased resistance to weathering
• Better bond b/w concrete and reinforcement
• Reduce shrinkage and cracking
 Advantages of low w/c ratio
• Increases compressive strength
• Lower permeability
• Increased resistance to weathering
• Better bond b/w concrete and reinforcement
• Reduce shrinkage and cracking
 Characteristics of concrete
Unit weight = 25 kN/m3
Compressive strength Eg:- M20, MMix, 20  fck = 20 MPa
Increase in strength with age
Tensile strength of concrete Flexural strength, f cr = 0.7 √fck N/mm2

Elastic Deformation E = 5000 √f N/mm

c ck
2

Shrinkage of concrete Strain = 0.0003

Creep of concrete
Thermal expansion of
concrete
Characteristics of reinforcement
Unit weight = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio, 𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟑
Should bond well with concrete
Should have good strength
Should have good
ductility
Should have good
resistance against
Concrete grade and mix ratio
Mix Mix ratio Nature of work
M 5.0 1:5:10 Mass concrete for heavy walls,
footings, etc
M 7.5 1:4:8 Mass concrete – foundations of
less importance
M 10 1:3:6 Mass concrete – foundations of
less importance
M 15 1:2:4 General RCC works (Slab, beam,
column, etc)
M 20 1:1.5:3 Water retaining structures, piles,
and general RCC works
M 25 1:1:2 Heavy loaded RCC structure –
long span slabs, beams, etc
 Workability

Property of freshly mixed concrete (or mortar) which

determines the ease and homogeneity with which it
can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished.

Ability to flow and work with concrete

Factors affecting workability
• Water content
• Size – finer particles  more water  large specific surface
• Shape – Angular aggregates require more water than rounded aggrgates
• Texture and grading
• Mix proportions
• Grading of aggregates
• Use of admixtuers
 Workability tests
1. Slump test
2. Compaction – factor test
3. Vee-bee test
 Slump test
• Field and lab test to find workability of fresh concrete
Slump
The difference in height between the concrete before
removing slump cone and height of the concrete after
removing of slump cone
Types of slump
1. Zero slump – no slump when slump cone is removed
2. Collapse slump
3. Shear slump – some portion subsides largely
4. True slump
Procedure for slump test
1. Prepare mix and fill slump cone in 3 layers – 25 times
tamping to each layer
2. Cut the excess concrete and level the top
3. Remove the slump cone slowly
4. Measure the slump : Max slump = 300 mm
 Compaction factor test
• Field and lab test
A

Prepare mix. Eg: M20

Procedure for compaction factor test
• Fill concrete in HOPPER A
• Open trap door  Concrete falls to HOPPER B
• Open trap door  Concrete falls to CYLINDER
• Note the weight of partially compacted concrete
• Remove all concrete from cylinder – EMPTY IT
• Again fill the cylinder from same sample mix
• 3 LAYERS – 25 Tamping with tamping rod
• Weight the fully compacted concrete
• Compaction Factor is

𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐞

C.F =
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐮𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐞
 Tests on Hardened concrete

1. Compression test (cube & cylinder)

2. Flexural strength test
3. Split tensile strength test
 Compression test - cube

• 3 cubes – 15 X 15 X 15 cm
• Mould removal – after 1 day
• Curing – 3, 7, 28 days
• Tested using UTM/CTM
Compression test - Cylinder
Flexural strength test
Split tensile strength test
 Chemical admixtures
Chemicals added to concrete before or
during mixing of concrete to modify some
specific property of fresh or hardened
concrete.
Eg:-
1. Plasticizer
2. Superplasticizer
3. Accelerators
4. Retarders
5. Air entraining admixtures
6. Water-reducers
 Plasticizers and super plasticizers
• A type of water reducing admixture
• Also called as High range water reducer
• Increased fluidity : flowing, self levelling, etc
• Reduced water cement ratio: High early strength

• Commonly used superplasticizers are

1. Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
2. Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
3. Polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers (PCE)
 Accelerators

• A type of admixture
• Increase rate of hydration of cement
• Reduce setting time
• Increase rate of strength development
• Eg:- Na2SO4, NaCl, K2SO4, CaCl2
 Retarders

• To increase (retard/delay) the setting time

• Slow rate of hydration
• Helpful – concrete transporting to long distance
• Eg:- Derivatives of sugar and carbohydrates,
gypsum, plaster of paris, etc
Timber and wood products
 Timber
Timbrian = build
Timber means wood suitable for
building / carpentry / engineering
purposes
Standing timber Timber contained in a living tree

Rough timber Obtained after felling a tree

Converted timber Timber sawn & cut into suitable commercial sizes
 Classification of trees

Used for engg

purposes
Exogenous Endogenous
(Grow outwards) (Grow inwards and longer)

Eg: - Bamboo, cane,

Conifers Deciduous palm, coconut tree

 Ever green trees  Broad-leaf trees

 Leaves do not fall till new  Leaves fall in autumn and
ones grows new ones appear in spring
 Bears cone shaped fruits  Mostly for engg purposes
 Eg: Mango tree  Eg: Teak

Soft wood Hard wood

 Soft wood
• Ever green trees
• Distinct annual rings
• Light colour
• Poor fire resistance
• Indistinct medullary rays
• Can split easily
• Light weight
| Hard wood
• Broad-leaf trees
• Indistinct annual rings
• Dark colour
• More fire resistance
• Distinct medullary rays
• Can’t split easily
• Heavy weight
 Structure of a tree

1. Micro structure
Timber studied under microscope

2. Macro structure
Timber studied with naked eye
 Micro structure
Timber consists of living and dead cells
Living cells – membrane, protoplasm, sap, core

1. Conductive cells
Transfer nutrients from roots to various parts of tree

2. Mechanical cells
Tightly interconnects cells and imparts strength to tree

3. Storage cells
Extra nutrients are stored
Macro structure
Pith (core/medulla)
 Innermost central portion
 Supply nutrients at young age
Heart wood
 Inner annular rings surrounding pith
 Usually dark in colour
 Used for engineering purposes

Sap wood (Albernum)

 Outer annular rings b/w heart wood and cambium layer
 Light weight and light colour
 It take active part in growth of tree
Cambium layer
 Thin layer of sap b/w sap wood
and inner bark
 This get converted into sap
wood
Inner bark
 Inner layer covering
(protection to) cambium layer

Outer bark (Cortex)

 Outermost protective layer of a
tree
Medullary rays
 Defects in timber
due to

Conversion Fungus Natural forces Insects Seasoning

1. Chip mark 1. Blue stain 1. Burls 1. Beetles 1. Check
2. Callus
2. Diagonal grain 2. Sap stain 3. Chemical stain
2. Marine borers 2. Split
3. Torn grain 3. Dry rot 4. Coarse grains 3. Termites 3. Cup
4. Wane 4. Wet rot 5. Dead wood 4. Bow
5. Brown rot 6. Druxiness 5. Twist
7. Foxiness
6. White rot 8. Knot
6. Warp
7. Heart rot 9.Rind gall 7. Collapse
10.Shake 8. Case hardening
1. Cup 9.Radial shake
shak
e
10.Honey combing
2. Ring
shak
e
3. Hear
t
shak
e
4. Star
 1. Defects due to conversion
1. Chip mark
Marks/signs placed by chips on finished timber surface
May be formed by parts of planing machine, chisel marks, etc
Affects appearence
Not affects strength

2. Diagonal grain
Due to improper sawing of timber
Should cut parallel to layers/fibers
Don’t cross fibers while cutting
3. Torn grain
When heavy equipments falls on a finished surface,
depressions are formed.
Not affect strength, but affect appearence

4. Wane
Due to improper sawing of timber
 2. Defects due to fungus
Fungus attacks timber if

(i) moisture content > 20 % and

(ii) in presence of air.

Wood having moisture content < 20 % will not affected

by fungus

Wood submerged in water will not affected by fungus

1. Blue stain
Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour by action of fungi

2. Sap stain
Sap wood losses its colour due to fungus attack.

3. Dry rot
Certain fungus attack timber and convert it into powder form

4. Wet rot
Some fungus causes chemical decomposition of wood
that convert timber into greyish brown powder.
5. Brown rot
Rot means decay/disease of timber
Some fungus attacks cellulose  White colour losses.
Thus brown colour of lignin dominates and wood seen
as brown colour.

6. White rot
Some fungus attacks lignin  Brown colour losses.
Thus white colour of cellulose dominates and wood seen
as white colour.
7. Heart rot
Formed when branches are cut
Heart wood is exposed to attacks of atmospheric agents
Fungus develops holes in timber
Tree becomes weak; it gives us hollow sound when
stuck with a hammer.
 3. Defects due to natural forces
1. Burls
Also known as excrescences
When tree gets shock/injury in its young age
Due to such injury, growth of tree becomes completely
upset and irregular projections appear on the body of
timber.

2. Callus
Soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of a tree
3. Chemical stain
Wood sometimes discoloured by chemical actions.

4. Coase grain
If a tree grows rapidly, annual rings are widened.
Have less strength

5. Dead wood
Timber obtained from dead standing trees
6. Druxiness
White decayed spots concealed by healthy wood

7. Foxiness
Red or yellow tinge in wood
Due to
(i) Bad ventilation
(ii) Over maturity
8. Knot
Bases of cut-off branches of a tree
Continuity of wood fibre is lost due to knots  Weak
Dark and strong (even saw breaks)
Losses alignment of fibers
9. Rind galls
Rind means bark; gall means abnormal growth
Develops at points from where branches are
improperly cut-off.
Nutrients get still supplied at that points
Fibers gets cutted
10. Shakes
a) Cup shakes
Cracks formed in annual ring direction
Curved cracks

Seperates partly one

annual ring from other
 Shake
10. Shakes Cup shake
Ring shake

b) Ring shakes
Heart shake
Radial shake
Star shake

When cup shakes cover entire annual rings

10. Shakes
c) Heart shakes

Cracks formed at centre of cross-section

Extends from pith to sapwood in
direction of medullary rays.

Due to maturity, inside starts shrinking

Divides tree into two or four parts
10. Shakes
d) Star shakes

Cracks from bark towards sapwood.

Cracks upto sap only
Not reach heartwood or pith
Can remove outer area and use
Due to extreme heat or frost
10. Shakes
d) Radial shakes

Similar to star shakes

Outer surface easily dries
Shrinks from outer to
inner
But they are fine, irregular and numerous
Extends from bark towards center
11. Twisted fibre
Also known as wandering hearts
Due to twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind
While sawing, it cuts fibers everywhere. Means it cannot
used by cutting. But can use as a single wood.
12. Upset
Also known as rupture
Wood fibers injured by compression
Due to improper felling of trees

13. Water stain

Wood sometimes discolours when it
comes in contact with water

14. Wind cracks

If wood exposed to atmospheric agencies,
its exterior surface shrinks  cracks
 4. Defects due to insects
1. Beetles
Creates holes in wood  for food fine flour like powder

2. Marine borers
Salty waters  make holes in timber for shelter

3. Termites
White ants
 5. Defects due to seasoning
1. Check
Crack which seperates fibers of wood
Does not extend from one end to other
2. Split
When a crack extends from one end to other
3. Cup
Curvature formed in transverse direction

4. Bow
Curvature formed in direction of length of timber
5. Twist
When a piece of timber get spirally distorted along
its length

6. Warp
When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape
7. Collapse
Due to uneven shrinkage, wood sometimes
flattens during drying.
1. Check
2. Split
8. Case hardening 3. Cup
4. Bow
5. Twist
Exposed surface of timber dries rapidly 6. Warp
Under Compression 7. Collapse
8. Case hardening
Interior surface not completely dried 9.Radial shake
10.Honey combing
Under tension
9. Radial shake

10. Honey combing

Due to stresses developed during drying, various
radial and circular cracks develop in the interior
portion of timber.
 Seasoning of timber
Newly felled tree contains > 50 % water in form of sap
Water is in the form of sap and moisture
To use timber for engineering purposes, water should be
removed. (Timber should be dried)

Process of drying of timber to remove water is known as

seasoning.
 Objects of Seasoning
To make the timber fit for uses for engineering purposes
Allows timber to burn rapidly, if used as fuel

To improve strength, hardness, stiffness, and

electrical resistance properties
To reduce tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp.
Reduces much of useless weight of timber
To make the timber safe from attacks of insects and fungus.
Improves workability of timber
 Methods of seasoning

Natural Seasoning Artificial Seasoning

When seasoning of timber

is carried out by natural air
or water.
 Natural Seasoning
1. Water seasoning
Timber is immersed in water
flow which helps to remove
the sap present in the timber
Allow timber to dry for
2 to 4 weeks
2. Air seasoning
Arrange timber logs in layers
in a shed.
Air is circulated freely
between logs  moisture
reduces
Slow process, but we get
well seasoned timber
 Artificial Seasoning
1. Boiling 2. Chemical 3. Kiln 4. Electrical

Timber allowed to Timber stored in Timber stored in timber subjected

dry after boiling for salt solution. Salt salt solution. Salt to high frequency
3 to 4 hours absorb water. absorb water. AC currents
 Preservation of timber

Application of chemical substance on timber surface

Carried out to increase the life of timber
Preserve timber from decaying
To increase durability, to get rid of insects and
fungi, etc.
Presevatives makes timber ‘poisonous’ for insects and fungi
without affecting the structural properties of timber.
Methods of Timber Preservation

Brushing

Spraying
Injectin
g under
pressure
Dipping and stepping
Charring
Hot and cold open
Types of preservatives for timber

Coal tar – heat and apply using brush

ASCU – powder dissolved in water and apply by spraying
Chemical salts – CuSO4, ZnCl
Oil paints
Solignum paints – applied using brush
Creosote oil
 Wood products
Industrial timber
– timber prepared scientifically in a factory
– examples are :

Veneer
Plywood
Fibreboard
Impreg timber
Compreg
timber
1. Veneer

Thin sheets of wood of superior quality

Thickness = 0.4 mm to 6 mm
Obtained by rotating a log of wood against
a shark knife of rotary cutter
Dried in kilns to remove moisture
Process of preparing a sheet of veneer is
known as veneering.
Veneers are used to produce plywood's,
batten boards, and laminboards.

Glued on the surface of inferior wood to

create an impression that whole piece
is made of expensive timber
2. Plywoods
Ply means thin layer
Veneers placed in both longitudinal and
transverse directions  more strength
Suitable adhesives are used to held in position
Available in different commercial sizes
Used for:

1. Ceilings
2. Doors
3. Furniture
4. Partitions
5. Paneling walls
6. Formworks of concrete
3. Fiberboard (Pressed/reconstructed wood)
Rigid boards
Thickness = 3 mm to 12 mm
Not able to take loads
Used for:

1. Interior decorations
2. Doors
3. Partitions
4. Panel works
Impreg and compreg timber
4. Impreg timber
Timber partly/fully covered with resins
Eg: Phenol formaldehyde
Veneers immersed in resins and heated
Trade names: Sunmica, formica, Sungloss
Not affected by moisture, weather, acids,
etc Low contraction and expansion
Glazing appearence
5. Compreg timber
Same as impreg timber, but cured under
pressure Heat + Pressure
More strength and durability – good quality
 Metals

Ferrous Non-ferrous
metals
metals
1. Wrought iron 1. Aluminum
2. Cast iron 2. Copper
3. Mild steel 3. Lead
4. Special steels 4. Zinc
a. High carbon steel 5. Titanium
b. High tensile steel 6. Cobalt
c. Stainless steel
7. Nickel
Iron ores

Haematite - Red oxide of iron |65-70 % iron

Limonite - Brown haematite | 60 % iron

Magnetite - Black oxide of iron | 73 % iron (Richest)

Iron pyrites - Sulphide of iron |45-47 % iron

Siderite - Carbonate of iron | Spathic iron | 40%
Pig iron
Crude impure iron extracted from iron ores
Parent metal of cast iron, wrought iron &
steel 5 – 6 % Carbon content
Manufactured in blast furnace
Properties of pig iron

High compressive strength

Cannot magnetized
Cannot welded or
rivetted Does not rust
Difficult to bend
Hard and
brittle
Neither ductile

Re-melting with
coke and
lime
Cast iron
 2 – 4 % carbon content
 Made in cupola furnace
 Cannot magnetized
 Good compressive
strength
 Will not rust
easily
 Not ductile and
malleable
 Uses: water pipes, sewers,
gates, lamp posts,castings,
compression members,
Pig iron
Wrought iron Steel
 Almost pure iron  C = 0.25 – 1.5 %
 Less than 0.15 % C  Bessemer process
 Reverberatory furnace  Permanent magnets
 Good tensile strength  Mechanical treatments
 Temporary magnetization possible: forging,
possible drawing, pressing, rolling
 Ductile, Malleable, fibrous  Malleable and ductile
 Fuses with difficulty (1500 C)
o  Types and uses:
 Uses: Rivets, chains, nuts
and bolts, railway couplings,
handrails
1. Aluminum
Ore: Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O)
Good conductor of heat and
electricity Highly resistant to
corrosion
High temperature resistant
Light weight and takes more
load Specific gravity = 2.7
Possess great toughness and tensile strength
 Possess great toughness and tensile strength
It readily dissolves in Hydrochloric acid

Uses of Aluminum
For making parts of aeroplane
Utensils
Corrugated roofing sheets
Structural members
Electric wires
Window frames
2. Copper
Ores:
 Cuprite
 Copper glance
 Copper pyrites
 Malachite
 Azarite
Cannot welded
It has a peculiar red colour
Good conductor of heat and electricity
 Specific gravity = 8.90
Malleable, ductile and soft
Not attacked by water at any
temperature, But attacked by steam at
white heat.
Uses of Copper
Wires and electric cables
Household utensils
Electroplating
3. Lead

Ore: Galena
Specific gravity = 11.36
It can be cut with
knife
It is lustrous metal
with bluish grey colour
It is soft
Uses: Shot puts, bullets, base in paints,
4. Zinc

Ore: Zincite, Franklinite, Calamine, Zinc Blende

Not occur in free state in nature
It is a bluish white metal
It is not affected by dry air and water
It is brittle at ordinary temperature
Uses: Paint, electric cells, Galvanising
5. Titanium

Stronger than aluminum

Similar strength as steel & weight nearly half of
steel Have high melting point
Good corrosion resistance
Not found in free state
Uses: Aerospace, marine, chemical and
biomedical applicatios – turbine blades,
bone screws, dental fixtures, surgical
instruments