LIMIT STATE OF DESIGN

OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES-I
(CE-501)
By

Er. Vishal Chaudhary

Assistant Professor
Deptt. Of Civil Engineering
MAHATMA GANDHI GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
KOTLA, JEORI
 CONCRETE
CEMENT+ FINE AGGREGATES + COARSE AGGREGATES
Cement
• Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance

• Popular building material.

• Material with adhesive & cohesive properties.

• To bind the fine & coarse aggregate together.

• To fill voids in between fine & coarse aggregate particle to form a compact
mass
CEMENT
PORTLAND CEMENT
Made by mixing substances containing Calcium Carbonate such as chalk /
limestone, with substances containing silica , alumina and iron oxide
such as clay/ shale.

•Clay/shale:
SiO2 Silica (silicon oxide) abbreviated S
Fe203 Ferrite (iron oxide) abbreviated F
Al203 Alumina (aluminium oxide) abbreviated A
•Limestone/chalk
CaC03 Calcium carbonate abbreviated C

•then the mixture heated and became clinker.

•Clinker then grounded to powder.
•The hardening Portland cement is a chemical process during which heat is evolved.

Why is it called "portland" cement?

Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product in 1824, named it portland
cement because it produced a concrete that resembled the color of the natural
limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel
Chemical Composition of
Cement
• The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist
mainly of lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide

• These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high

temperature to form more complex compounds

• The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are

responsible for influencing the various properties of cement, in
addition to rate of cooling and fineness of grinding
Chemical Composition of
Cement
Oxide Percent content
CaO (Lime) 62-67%
SiO2 (Silica) 17-25%
Al2O3 (Alumina) 3-8%
Fe2O3 (Iron oxide) 0.5-6%
MgO (Magnesia) 0.1-4%
Alkalies(K2O,Na2O) 0.5-1.3%
SO3 (Sulphur trioxide) 1-3%
Functions of Ingredients of
Cement
Lime (CaO)
• Major ingredient of cement
• Excess quantity of lime makes the cement unsound (i.e. shows
excessive expansion after setting)
• If it is less, it decreases the strength and allows the cement to set
quickly
Functions of Ingredients of
Cement
Silica (SiO2)

• An important ingredient which gives strength to cement due to

formation od di-calcium and tri-calcium silicates.

• If it is in excess silica allows the cement to set slowly

Functions of Cement Ingredients
Alumina(Al2O3)

• This imparts quick setting time to the cement

• If it is in excess quantity, it weakens the cement
• It also lowers the temperature of clinkers, but a high
temperature is required to obtain a suitable cement.
Functions of Cement Ingredients
(contd) 10

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)

• It helps the fusion of the raw materials during
burning stage

• It gives colour, strength and hardness to

cement
Functions of Cement Ingredients
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

• If present in small quantities, MgO imparts hardness and colour to

cement.

• If it is in excess quantity, makes the cement unsound.

Functions of Cement Ingredients

Sulphur
• A very small quantity is required in the manufacturing of cement

• If it is in excess, SO3 makes the cement unsound

Functions of Cement Ingredients
Alkalies

• A small quantity are required

• Alkalies and other impurities present in raw materials are

carried by the flue gases during heating

• If it is in excess quantity, efflorescence is caused

Manufacturing of Portland Cement
• The raw materials required for manufacturing of cement are
calcareous materials, such as lime stones or chalk, and
argillaceous materials such as shale or clay

Lime Stone Shale

Manufacturing of Portland Cement

• There are two processes known as ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ processes

depending upon whether the mixing and grinding of raw
materials is done in wet or dry conditions
Dry Process
In this process the following operations are involved
1. Mixing of raw materials
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Packing and Distribution
WET PROCESS
WET PROCESS
DRY PROCESS
Clinker Gypsum
 Grinding
• Clinker is ground with gypsum
(calcium sulfate) to produce
portland cement
• Fine grinding is necessary for
high early strength
– 85-95% -325 mesh (45
microns)
– ~ 7 trillion particles per
pound

• Gypsum absorbs water and

prevents setting of C3A during
shipment
Rotary Kiln

48
 Bogue’s Compounds
During the manufacturing of cement, in burning zone, the ingredients of
calcareous and argillaceous component i.e. lime, silica, alumina, iron oxide
etc. get united to form new compounds at very high temperature and this
process is called fusion.

• These compounds are called bogue‘s compounds.

Compound symbol
1.Tricalcium silicate C3S
2.Dicalcium silicate C2S
3.Tricalcium aluminate C3A
4.Tetracalcium alumino C4AF
ferrite 54
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
CLINKER
CaO +
calcination

2CaO + = ( Di-calcium Silicate)

3CaO + = ( Tri-calcium Silicate)

3CaO + = ( Tri-calcium Aluminate)

4CaO + + = ( Tetra -calcium

Alumino ferrite)
Properties of Mineral
Compounds
Mineral Tricalcium Dicalcium Tricalcium Tetracalcium
types silicate silicate aluminates aluminoferrite
Abbreviation C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Content (%) 30-50 20-45 8-12 6-10
Hydration
speed fast slow fastest fast
Hydration
heat much little most more
early low
Strength high later high low low
Anti-
corrosion good fine poor excellent
Shrinkage middle better big small
Hydration of Cement

• When water is added to cement a chemical reaction starts between active

components of cement (C4AF,C3A,C3S andC2S) and water which is
exothermic in nature and liberate a significant amount of heat

• This is known as hydration and the liberated heat is called heat of

hydration

56
Properties of Bogue’s Compound
1) Tri-Calcium Silicate ( ) : 30-50%

3CaO·SiO2+H2O CaO·2SiO2·3H2O+Ca(OH)2

o Tri-calcium silicate hydrates rapidly and forms earlier strength (7 days)

and earlier heat of hydration.

o Enables clinker to grind easily.

o Increases resistance to freezing and thawing.

o Tricalcium silicate is formed in a kiln when the charge contains an

abundance of lime, and hence the greater amount of CaO in the
reaction.
Properties of Bogue’s Compound

2) Dicalcium Silicate ( ) :20-45%

2CaO·SiO2+ H2O 2CaO·2SiO2·3H2O+Ca(OH)2

o Dicalcium silicate hydrates slowly and is responsible for strength

increase in concrete at later ages. The heat of hydration is liberated
slowly.

o More dicalcium silicate is formed when the raw materials contain less
lime.

o It imparts resistance to chemical attack.

3) Tricalcium aluminate ( ): 8-12%

Tricalcium aluminate hydrates rapidly and liberates a large amount of

heat.

If this reaction were not controlled, concrete would set so rapidly

(flash set) that it could not be used in modern construction.

Any cement having cement more is liable for sulphur attacks.

3CaO·Al2O3+H2O 3CaO·Al2O3·6H2O
4) Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF): 6-
10%
 It is also responsible for high heat of hydration as compare to C2S,
but less than C3A.

 Its contribution in strength is very less.

 It has contribution within 24 hours of adding water to the cement .

Water Requirement for
Hydration
• About an average 23 percent of water by weight of cement is required for
complete hydration of Portland cement

• This water combines chemically with the cement compounds

• Some quantity of water, about 15 percent by weight of cement

, is required to fill the cement gel pores

• A total of 38 percent of water by weight of cement is required to complete

the chemical reaction
Water Requirement for
Hydration
• If excess water is present, it will lead to capillary cavities

• In a month’s time 85 to 90 % of the cement gets hydrated and

cement attains almost its full strength

• Hydration still continues and cement grows stronger with time

Fineness and Properties
Fineness related to the surface area touching with water, so it influences the
setting/hardening speed and the properties of cement.

Fineness and Properties of Cement

Surface area Setting and
Fineness touching with hardening Properties
water speed
Small Strength
Great High
D < 40μ High

Too small Easily Great Cost High

Large
Low Low Low
D >100μ
TYPES OF CEMENT
1. Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC)
2. Portland Slag Cement (IS-455)
3. Portland Pozzolana Cement (fly ash based – IS 1489 Part I)
4. Portland Pozzolana Cement (Calcined Clay based – IS 1489 Part II)
5. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (IS-8041)
6. White Cement (IS-8042)
7. Hydrophobic Cement (IS-8043)
8. Sulphate Resisting Cement (IS-12330)
9. Low heat Cement (IS-12600)
Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC)
• It is a common variety of cement
• It is suitable for the construction of all civil engineering works except
under water constructions

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

• Used in all important structures where great strength is required such as

heavy buildings and bridges light houses, docks, reservoirs, etc,.
• Foundations in wet places, and structures subjected to the action of
water such as
• Retaining walls
• Watertight floors
• Cement mortar for plastering, pointing etc
• Plain concrete
Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC)
The OPC is classified into three grades, depending upon the strength of the
cement ( in N/mm2 ) at 28 days when tested as per IS 4031 – 1988

 OPC-33 grade, (IS-269)

 OPC-43 grade, (IS:8112-1989)
 OPC-53 grade, (IS: 12269-1987)
The number 33,43,53 corresponds to 28 days characteristic compressive strength
of cement as obtained from standard test on cement sand mortar (1:3) specimens.

This cement is used in general concrete construction where there is no exposure to

sulphates in the soil or in groundwater.
 Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

For making

• Reinforced cement concrete for laying floors ,roofs, lintels, beams,

etc,.
• Reinforced brick work
• In drainage and water supply works like water storage tanks, septic,
tanks, etc,.
• For protecting the external faces of buildings or engineering
structures from weathering action
• For thin masonry works, where strength is required
• Making joints for drains, pipes etc,.
• Manufacturing of precast pipes, piles, garden benches, fencing posts,
flower pots, etc,.
• Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc,.
Quick Setting Cement

• As the name indicates, it sets very fast

• The early setting property is brought out by reducing the amount
of gypsum during the grinding process
• This cement is costlier than ordinary Portland cement
• Initial setting time starts within 5 minutes, after adding water
• Final setting time: within 30 minutes
• It is ground much finer than OPC
• It is used when is to be laid underwater
Advantages
• It is used in construction of structures under water, in water logging areas,
rivers, in running water like canals and streams and pipe lines etc,.

• It is also used in emergency circumstances where quick

setting of cement is needed.
 White Cement
• Raw materials like china clay and pure lime stone are used to get pure white
colour

• It is a variety of OPC

• It is prepared from such materials which are practically free from colouring
oxides of iron and manganese

• For burning of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal

• It is white in colour
Uses
• It is used for floor finish, plaster work, ornamental work, etc

• It is also used to fill the small holes during sanitary, water supply
fittings, wall tiles etc
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

 It is finer than Ordinary Portland cement

 It contains and less than the OPC
 The 1 day strength of this cement is equal to the 3 days strength of OPC
with same water cement ratio.
 The main advantage of this cement is that the shuttering may be removed
much earlier, thus saving considerable time and expense.
 Cost of rapid hardening cement is nearly 10-15% more than OPC.
 It can be safely exposed to frost as it matures more quickly.
LOW HEAT CEMENT
 Obtained by reducing the more rapidly hydrating compounds, and and
increasing .
 As per IS specifications, the heat of hydration of low heat cement shall be
as follows:
7 days – not more than 65 calories per gram
28 days – not more than 75 calories per gram
 Since, the rate of gain of strength of this cement is low, hence adequate
precaution should be taken in its use such as with regard to removal of
formwork etc.
 LHC is used in massive construction works like abutments, retaining
walls, dams etc. where the rate at which the heat can be lost at the surface
is lower than at which the heat initially generated.
 It has low rate of gain of strength , but the ultimate strength is practically
same as that OPC.
Portland Pozzolana Cement
Siliceous or aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 to form
compounds possessing hydraulic cementitious properties.
a material that, when used in conjunction with portland cement,
contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or
pozzolanic activity, or both.

Natural (Volcanic ash, volcanic tuff, pumicite)

Artificial (fly ash, silica-fume, granulated blast
furnace slag)
Laboratory Tests on Cement

1. Consistency of cement
2. Setting time of cement
3. Soundness of cement
4. Compressive strength test
5. Fineness of cement
6. Tests for chemical composition of cement
Normal consistency of cement
A minimum quantity of water (in percentage) added to cement
that initiate the chemical reaction between water and cement to
form a uniform paste of sufficient viscosity and desirable
strength.

Normal consistency is defined as that consistency which will

permit a Vicat’s plunger having 10mm diameter and 50mm
length to penetrate a depth of 5 to 7 mm from bottom of the
mould.
 VICAT’s APPARATUS

72
Normal Consistency Test of
Cement
1. Take 300gm of cement sample and place at on a non-
absorbent plate

2. Take 25% of water by weight of cement as first trial and

mix it thoroughly with cement using gauging trowels.
Ensure that the time of gauging shall be within 3 to 5
minutes. The time of gauging shall be reckoned from the
instant water is added to cement to that paste is filled in the
mould

73
3. Keep mould on a non absorbent plate. Apply a thin coat of oil inside
the mould

4. Fill the vicat’s mould with cement paste at a stretch and tamp the mould
so as to make the cement spread uniformly in the mould. Strike off the
excess cement plate and level the surface of mould with spatula

5. Fix the plunger of 10mm dia x 50mm long to the plunger holder of the
apparatus. Gently lower the plunger to touch the top surface of the paste
and leve it quickly. Due to the weight of header and holder the plunger
penetrates in to the cement paste.
6. Note the plunger’ penetration reading on the scale of apparatus. The
recorded penetration value is reckoned from the bottom of mould

7. Remove the plunger and cement paste from the mould

8. Take sample of cement and repeat the entire process with 27% of
water and note down the plunger penetration
Normal Consistency Test of
Cement (contd)

9. Repeat the above process with varying % of water and note the
penetration of plunger till the penetration value is 5 to 7 mm measured
from the bottom of the mould to the top of the plunger.

Note :The standard consistency of ordinary Portland cement is

30 to 35% by weight of cement
Initial and Final setting time of cement
Initial Setting Time of Cement
When water is added to cement, the paste starts stiffening and gaining
strength, simultaneously loosing its plasticity. Two stiffening states identified
are initial and final setting times respectively

• Initial setting time is the time interval between the addition of water to
cement and the stage when needle ceases to penetrate completely i.e.
needle penetrates only to a depth of 33 to 35 mm from top ( or 5 to
7mm from the bottom).

• This time should be about 30 minutes for ordinary cement and 60

minutes for low heat cement.
Test for Initial Setting Time of Cement (contd)

Procedure
(A) Preparation of test block (paste in the mould)

1. Prepare a neat cement paste by mixing the cement with

0.85 times the water required to give a paste of standard consistency

2. Start stop watch at the instant when water is added to cement.

Thoroughly mix cement and water using gauging trowels till required
uniformity is attained in mixing
Test for Initial Setting Time of Cement (contd)

3. Fill the mould completely and smoothen the surface of the

paste by making it level with the top of the mould. The cement
paste thus prepared in the mould is the test block

Note :
• Clean appliance shall be used for mixing

• All apparatus shall be free from

vibration during the test

• Care shall be taken to keep the

needle straight
Test for Initial Setting Time of Cement (contd)

(B) Initial Setting Time

1. Place the test block with porous plate at bottom, under the rod, bearing
the needle (C) as shown in the fig of Vicat Apparatus

2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of
test block and quickly release, allowing it to penetrate into test block
Test for Initial Setting Time of Cement (contd)

Vicat Apparatus
Test for Initial Setting Time of Cement (contd)
3. Repeat this procedure at regular intervals of time until the needle,
when brought in contact with the test block and released as above fails
to pierce the block for 5 to 7 mm measured from the bottom of the
mould

4. The period elapsed between the time when water is added to the cement
and the time at which the needle fails to pierce the test block to a point 5
to 7 mm measured from the bottom of the mould shall be reported as
initial setting time

Note :The initial setting time of ordinary Portland cement

is 30 minutes
Test for Final Setting Time of Cement (contd)

(C) Final Setting Time

1. Replace the needle ‘C’ with needle ‘F’ of the vicat apparatus attachment

2. Prepare the test block according to the procedure given above

3. The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon applying the
needle gently to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an
impression there while the attachment fails to do so
Test for Final Setting Time of Cement

4. The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the
cement and the time at which the needle makes an impression on
the surface of the test block while the attachment fails to do so
shall be the final setting time

Note :The final setting time of ordinary Portland cement

is 600 minutes
Soundness test

1. The apparatus (shown in previous fig) consists of a small split cylinder of

spring brass or other suitable metal

2. It is 30mm in dia and 30mm high

3. On either side of the split are attached two indicator arms 165 mm long with
pointed ends
Equipment for Soundness test

4
Soundness test (contd)
4. Cement Is gauged with 0.78 times the water required for standard
consistency (0.78p) in a standard manner and filled into the mould and
kept on a glass plate

5. The mould is covered on the top with another glass plate

6. The whole assembly is immersed in water at a temperature of

270C - 320C and kept there for 24 hrs

7. The distance between the indicator points is measured.

8. The mould is submerged again in water and the water is heated to

boiling point in about 25-30 minutes and boiling is continued for
3hours
Soundness test (contd)
9. The mould is removed from the water, allowed to cool and the distance
between the indicator points is measured.

10. The difference between these two measurements represents the

expansion of cement. This must not exceed 10mm for ordinary, rapid
hardening and low heat Portland cements

11. If in case, the expansion is more than 10mm as tested above, the cement
is said to be unsound ( not suitable )
Aggregates
 In concrete mixtures the proportions of cement paste & aggregates is
controlled by the following factors:
Suitable workability & placeability of fresh mass.
Adequate strength & durability of hardened product.
Minimum cost of the final product

The aggregate occupies ~70-75% of the volume of concrete, so its quality

is of great importance. Aggregates may affect the following properties of
concrete:
Strength
Durability
Structural Performance
Economy
 Aggregates have 3 main functions in concrete:

To provide a mass of particles which are suitable to resist the

action of applied loads & show better durability then cement
paste alone.

To provide a relatively cheap filler for the cementing material.

To reduce volume changes resulting from setting &

hardening process & from moisture changes during drying.
 The properties of concrete are affected by the properties of aggregate:

• The mineral character of aggregate affects the strength, durability,

elasticity of concrete.
• The surface characteristics of aggregate affects the workability of fresh
mass & the bond between the aggregate & cement paste in
hardened concrete. If it is rough, workability decreases & bond increases.
• The grading of aggregate affects the workability, density & economy.
The amount of aggregate in unit volume of concrete
• Higher aggregate amount/unit volume of concrete results in less
volume changes during setting & hardening or moisture
changes. (increase in volume stability) Increase in strength &
durability
• Decrease in cost
• It is a common practice to use as much aggregate as possible in concrete
According to Size:Fine aggregate: d ≤ 4.75 mm Coarse aggregate: d > 4.75 mm

Aggregate Characteristics and Tests

 Abrasion resistance
 Sulfate resistance
 Particle shape and surface texture
 Fine aggregate degradation
 Void content
 Bulk density
 Particle Shape
 Rounded: Completely water worn & fully shaped by attrition. (River
Gravel)
 Irregular: Partly shaped by attrition so it contains some rounded edges.
(Land Gravel)
 Angular: Has sharp corners, show little evidence of wear. (Crushed Stone)
 Flaky: Thickness is relatively small with respect to two other dimensions.
 Elongated: Have lengths considerably larger than two other dimensions
 Rounded aggregates are suitable to use in concrete because flaky &
elongated particles reduce workability, increase water demand & reduce
strength. In the case of angular particles, the bond between agg. Particles is
higher due to interlocking but due to higher surface area, angular particles
increase water demand & therefore reduce workability.
Water in Concrete

Quality of water is important because bad quality and impurities in

water lead to the following:

 Interfere with the setting of the cement

 Affect the strength of the concrete
 Cause staining of its surface
 Lead to corrosion of the reinforcement.
Water/cement ratio

The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used
in a concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced.
A lower water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the
mix more difficult to place. Placement difficulties can be resolved by
using plasticizers or super-plasticizers.

ABRAM’s LAW
 The law states the strength of a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass
ratio of water to cement. As the water content increases, the strength of concrete
decreases.

where
S is the strength of concreteA and B are constants and A=96 N/mm2, B=7 (this is valid
for the strength of concrete at the age of 28 days)w/c is the water-cement ratio, which
varies from 0.3 to 1.20
 w/c ratio and Strength
w/c ratio 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
Probable strength (%) 100 87 70 55 44

Factors Low w/c ratio High w/c ratio

Strength High Low
Permeability Low High
Shrinkage Low High
Admixtures
 Admixtures are material other than cement, aggregates & water that are
added to concrete either before or during mixing to alter its properties &
performance in fresh (workability, setting time etc) and hardened state
(strength, durability etc.)
  Most admixtures are supplied in a ready-to- use form and added at plant
or jobsite. 
 To ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing &
curing
 To overcome certain unexpected emergencies during concrete operations
(ie, set retarders)
 Increase slump and workability
 Retard or accelerate initial setting
 Reduce or prevent shrinkage 
 Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding
 Reduce segregation
 Retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening
 Increase strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural)
 Decrease permeability of concrete
 Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement
 Increase bond between existing and new concrete
 Improve impact and abrasion resistance (hardness)
 Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal;
 Anti-washout &
 Produce coloured concrete.
Classification of Admixtures

 Chemical Admixtures
 Mineral Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
A chemical admixture is any chemical additive to the concrete mixture
that enhances the properties of concrete in the fresh or hardened state.
Types / Classifications
 Accelerators
 Retarders
 Plasticizer
 Superplasticizer
 Water proofers
 Water reducing agent
Accelerators
 Accelerating admixtures are added to accelerate
the setting time and to increase the rate of early
strength development.
Commonly used materials as an accelerator are:
Calcium chloride (Not used now)
Soluble carbonates
Silicates fluosilicates (Expensive)
Organic compounds such as tri ethenol amine
(Expensive)
Advantages / Effects of accelerator on concrete properties:
1.Reduced bleeding,
2.Earlier finishing
3.Improved protection against early exposure to freezing and thawing,
4.Earlier use of structure
5.Reduction of protection time to achieve a given quality,
6.Early removal of form, and early load application.
7.Increases the rate of gain of strength.
8. Enables earlier release from precast moulds thus speeding production.
9. Reduces segregation and increase density and compressive strength.
10.Cures concrete faster and therefore uniform curing in winter and summer can be
achieved.
11.Early use of concrete floors by accelerating the setting of concrete.
12.Reduces water requirements, bleeding, shrinkage and time required for initial set.
Retarders
 These admixtures are used where setting time of concrete need to be delayed.
 Retarder delays the hydration process but doesn’t affect the eventual process
 Initial setting time can be delayed by more than Three hours.

Advantages of Retarders / Effect of retarders on concrete properties

1. Retarding admixtures delay hydration of cement
2. To delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
3. These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and
helpful in placing the concrete at high temperatures.
4. Used in casting and consolidating large number of pours without the formation of
cold joints
5. Used in grouting oil wells.
Water Reducers

 To decrease the water content with higher workability of

concrete, some chemicals may be added to concrete is called
water reducer.
 The water reducing admixtures are two types;
1. Plasticizer
2. Superplasticizer
Plasticizers
 Plasticizers are the organic or combination of organic and inorganic
substances which reduces water content for certain degree of
workability, when added in mix.

 The basic products consisting

a. Ligno sulphonates,
b. Salts of sulphonates hydrocarbon
c. Polyglycol esters,
d. Hydroxylated carboxylic acid products

Dosage: 0.1% - 0.4% Water reducing capacity: 5% - 15%

 Effect of plasticizer on concrete properties:

• To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio

• To reduce the heat of hydration in mass concrete.
• To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations.
• Water reduction more than 5% but less than 15%
Superplasticizer
 Chemically different from the PLASTICIZER and capable of reducing
water content by about 30% has been developed.
Types of superplasticizers:
1. Sulphonated melamine: It is suitable in low temperature areas
2. Sulphonated naphthalene: It is more suitable in high temperature areas
3. Ligno sulphates: It is suitable for Indian conditions where temperature
variation is high
4. Carboxylated admixture: It is suitable where workability is required to
be retained for large duration.
Effect of superplasticizer on concrete properties:
1. Significant water reduction
2. Reduced cement contents
3. Reduce water requirement by 12-30%
4. Increased workability
5. Reduced effort required for placement
6. More effective use of cement
7. More rapid rate of early strength development
8. Increased long-term strength
9. Reduced permeability
Water Proofer
 It is essential to water proof a structure to prevent the seepage of
water for its durability. Provide water proofing solutions for
basements, sunken portions, roofs, terrace gardens and expansion
joints etc.
 Water proofers:
• Polymer Modified Cementitious Membranes
• Polyurethane Membranes
• Injection Grouting
• Bituminous membranes
• EPD (ethylene-propylene-diene) Membrane
• PVC Membrane
 WaterProofer Effect of water proofer on
concrete properties:
1. To reduce either the surface adsorption into the concrete and the
passage of water through the hardened concrete.
2. Reducing the size, number and continuity of the capillary pore
structure
3. Blocking the capillary pore structure
4. Lining the capillaries with a hydrophobic material to prevent
water being drawn in by absorption / capillary suction.
Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixture
Siliceous or siliceous-aluminous materials • In finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide liberated on
hydration at ordinary temperature

TYPES OF MINERAL OR POZZOLANIC ADMIXTURES

Natural Pozzolanas
a. Clay and Shales
b. Opalinc Cherts
c. Diatomaceous Earth
d. Volcanic Tuffs and Pumicites.
Artificial Pozzolanas

a. Fly ash (finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of

powdered coal in thermal power plant)
b. b. Silica Fume (Silica fume is a byproduct of producing silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys. Treated as very fine pozzolanic materials)
c. c. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) (a non-metallic
product consisting essentially of silicates and aluminates of calcium and
other bases.)
d. d. Metakaoline (highly reactive metakaolin is made by water processing
to remove unreactive impurities to make100% reactive pozzolan.)
e. e. Rice Husk ash
f. f. Surkhi
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES FOR THE DESIGN OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

A reinforced concrete structure should be designed so that it fulfils its intended

purpose during its intended lifetime with
1) Adequate safety, in terms of strength and stability
2) Adequate serviceability in terms of stiffness and durability
3) Reasonable economy
thus, all structures must be designed to safe, serviceable and economical.

Following design methods are used for the design of reinforced concrete
structures:
4) Modular Ratio Method or Working Stress method (WSM)
5) Load Factor Method or Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
6) Limit State Method (LSM)
WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM)
Traditional method of design, used not only for reinforced concrete but also for
structural steel and timber. Basic design philosophy of this method is :
1) The material behaves in linear elastic manner.
2) Adequate safety can be ensured by restricting the stresses in the materials
that are induced due to the application of working loads/service loads.

WSM uses a factor of safety of about 3 w.r.t. cube strength of concrete and a
factor of safety of about 1.8 w.r.t. yield strength of steel.
 Since, reinforced concrete is a composite structure, hence principles of
strength of material i.e. concept of strain compatibility is used, wherein it is
assumed that there exists a perfect bond between the two materials ( steel
and concrete) and that strain in steel is equal to the strain in the surrounding
concrete due to that perfect bond.
 Also, stress is related to strain and thus it follows that stress in steel is
related to the strain in steel. But strain in steel is equal to strain in
surrounding concrete. Therefore, stress in steel is indirectly related to the
strain in surrounding concrete. The indirect relation between steel and
concrete is expressed in terms of modular ratio (m) as :
DEMERITS OF WSM

1) Does not show the real strength nor gives the true factor of safety of the
structure under failure.

2) Modular ratio design results in larger percentage of compression steel than that
given by the limit state design, thus leading to uneconomic design.

3) It fails to give relative importance to the different types of loads that act on a
structure i.e. dead loads, live loads, snow loads, temperature loads etc. . All
these act on the structure with different uncertainties. This often lead to
conservative design and sometimes under conservative designs.

4) WSM give large sections ( compared to LSM & ULM) of the designed
reinforced concrete members.
ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM)
Improvement over WSM

In this method non-linear stress strain behaviour of steel and concrete are
accounted for and stresses induced in the structure at the verge of failure at
ultimate loads are considered.

The concept of load factor enables to assign different factors of safety (in terms
of load factors) to different types of loads (like dead load, live loads, seismic
loads , wind loads , snow loads etc.) and can be suitably combined.

This method utilises the reserve of strength in the plastic region.

DEMERITS OF ULM
1) The method does not take into consideration the serviceability criteria of
deflection and cracking.
2) The method does not take into consideration the effect of creep and
shrinkage.
3) Assumed non-linear stress strain behaviour of concrete and steel is
relevant only if non linear analysis is performed on the structure. But
nonlinear analysis of structures is too cumbersome to be done for routine
type of structures.

To summarise, the ultimate load method ensures safety at ultimate loads but
disregards the serviceability at service loads.
LIMIT STATE METHOD (LSM)
Structure is designed for safety against collapse (i.e. ultimate strength to resist
ultimate loads ) and checked for its serviceability at working loads, thus
rendering the structure fit for its intended use.

Limit state is a state of impending failure , beyond which a structure ceases to

perform its intended function satisfactorily , in terms of either safety or
serviceability i.e. either it collapses or becomes unserviceable.

In Limit State Method two types of limit states are defined :

1) Limit state of Collapse

2) Limit state of Serviceability
1) Limit State of Collapse

This limit state deals with the strength of structure in terms of collapse, overturning,
sliding and buckling etc.
a) Flexure
b) Compression
c) Shear
d) Torsion
e) Bond

2) Limit state of serviceability

This limit deals with the deformation of the structure to such an extent that the structure
becomes unserviceable due to excessive deflection, cracks , vibration, leakage etc.
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN VALUES AND PARTIAL
SAFETY FACTORS
1. Characteristic strength of materials:
Means that strength below which not more than a 5% of the test results are
expected to fall.

As the design strength should be less than mean strength, we have

Characteristic strength = mean strength – K * standard deviation
 K= constant = 1.65

The value of standard deviation is given by

IS 456: 2000 has recommended minimum value of n equal to 30.

CHARACTERISTIC LOADS

A characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has a 95%

probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure.