Cement

Today, the Portland cement is the most widely used building material in the
world with about 1.72 billion tons produced each year.  Annual global
production of Portland cement concrete is around 3.8 million cubic meters per
year (Cement Association of Canada, 2001). Cement can be prepared naturally
and artificially. Natural cement is obtained by burning and crushing the stones
containing clay, carbonate of lime and some amount of carbonate of magnesia.
It is brown in color and its best variety is known as Roman Cement. It
resembles closely to hydraulic lime. It sets very quickly after addition of water
and not as strong as artificial cement. Artificial cement, normally called the
Portland cement is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous material at a very high temperature. A small quantity of gypsum is
also added to it to make its setting time longer.

Manufacturing Process:   
Portland cement, the fundamental ingredient in concrete, is calcium silicate
cement made with a combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron. The
first step in the Portland cement manufacturing process is obtaining raw
materials. Generally, raw materials consisting of combinations of limestone,
shells or chalk, and shale, clay, sand, or iron ore are mined from a quarry near
the plant. At the quarry, the raw materials are reduced by primary and
secondary crushers. Stone is first reduced to 5-inch size (125-mm), then to 3/4-
inch (19 mm). Once the raw materials arrive at the cement plant, the materials
are proportioned to create cement with a specific chemical composition. Two
different methods, dry and wet, are used to manufacture Portland cement. In
the dry process, dry raw materials are proportioned, ground to a powder,
blended together and fed to the kiln in a dry state. In the wet process, a slurry is
formed by adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials. The
grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in
slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper
end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln. The mixture passes through the kiln at
a rate controlled by the slope and rotational speed of the kiln. Burning fuel
consisting of powdered coal or natural gas is forced into the lower end of the
kiln. Inside the kiln, raw materials reach temperatures of (14300C) , a series
of chemical reactions cause the materials to fuse and create cement clinker-
grayish-black pellets, often the size of marbles. Clinker is discharged red-hot
from the lower end of the kiln and transferred to various types of coolers to
lower the clinker to handling temperatures. Cooled clinker is combined with
gypsum and ground into a fine gray powder. The clinker is ground so fine that
nearly all of it passes through a No. 200 mesh (75 micron) sieve. This fine gray
powder is known as portland cement.

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 Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement: 
typical chemical analysis of a good ordinary cement is as follows

Ingredient  Percentage
Lime (CaO) 62
Silica (SiO2) 22
Alumina ( Al2O3) 5
Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4) 4
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3
Magnesia (MgO) 2
Sulphur (S) 1
Alcalies 1
Total 100

Function of Cement Ingredients:

Ingredients of ordinary cement, as mentioned above, perform the

following functions.

1. Lime (CaO):It imparts strength  to cement It's deficiency  causes

cement to set quickly . Lime in excess make the cement
unsound .Hence it's proportion in the cement is carefully
maintained.
2. Silica (SiO2): It imparts strength to cement.
3. Alumina(Al2O3):This ingredient imparts quick setting property to
cement. Alumina in excess weakens the cement.
4. Calcium Sulphate(CaSo4):This ingredient increase the initial
setting time of cement.
5. Iron Oxide(Fe2O3): This ingredients imparts color ,Hardness and
strength to cement.
6. Magnesia(MgO):This ingredient imparts hardness and colour to
cement. If it's percentage exceed more than 5 then it causes crack
after mortar or concrete hardens.
7. Sulphur(S):A small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound
cement. The excess amount makes the cement unsound.
8. Alkalies: The presence of this adversely affects the quality of
cement. and causes efflorescence. If it exceed 1% in cement , it
leads to the failure of the concrete made out of that cement.

Setting Action of Cement

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     When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound
constituents undergo a series of chemical reaction that causes it to
harden or set. During its process of hydration Chemical reaction with
water) various complicated chemical compounds are formed. The
formation of these compounds are not simultaneous . The setting action
of cement continues for a long time. Ordinary cement achieves about
70% of its final strength in 28 days. and about 90% of its final strength 
in one year or so. following are the important compounds formed during
the setting action of the cement in order of decreasing percentage by
weight.  

Percentages
Chemical Name Formula Short Notation
by Weight
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO,SiO2 C3S 50
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO,SiO2 C2S 25
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO,Al2O3 C3A 12
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite 4CaO,Al2O3,Fe2O3 C4AF 8
Gypsum CaSO4,H2O CSH2 3.5

Tricalcium Aluminate(C3A):

This compound hydrates and hardens the quickest within about 24 hours
after addition of water to cement. It liberates a large amount of heat
almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum
is added to portland cement to retard C 3A hydration. Without gypsum,
C3A hydration would cause portland cement to set almost immediately
after adding water.

Tetra-Calcium Alumino-ferrite(C4AF):

This compound hydrates rapidly, within about 24 hours after addition of

water to cement. But contributes very little to strength.Mst portland
cement colour effects are due to C4AF.

Tricalcium Silicate(C3S):

Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and
early strength. Portland Cement with high percentage of c3S will exhibit
higher early strength. After 28 days, the hydration of C 3Scomes
practically to an end. 

Dicalcium Silicate(C2S):

Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength

increases beyond one week. Practically the hydration starts when C 3S
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ceases to harden. Generally in hydraulic  engineering constructions,
cement is made with a high content of C2S.

Types of Portland Cement:

    The production of a different type of portland cement involves certain

adjustments in the manufacturing process, mainly the selection of raw
materials, chemical proportions, special additives, and degree of
grading. As per ASTM(American Society for Testing Materials)
standards the cement can be classified in five main types , such as
:Type I, Type II , Type III , type IV , Type V and other minor types like
Type Is Type IP and Type IA, IIA and IIIA. Someof these are briefly
described below.

Type I.    General-purpose cement suitable for most purposes (Ordinary

portland cement)

Type II.    For use in general concrete  concrete construction exposed to

moderate sulphate action, or where  moderate heat of hydration is
required.

Type III.    Used when high early strength is needed. Strength gain is

double that of type I cement in the first 24 hours. 

Type IV.    For use when low heat of hydration is required.

Type V.    For use when high sulphate resistance is required.

Type IS.    This consists of an intimate and uniform blend of portland

cement of type I and fine granular slag . The slag content is between  25
and 70 percent of portland cement.

Type IP.    This consists of an intimate and uniform blend of portland

cement and fine pozzolana (15 to 40 % of total cement)

Type IA.    This is basically type I cement with air entraining agent.

Type IIA.    This is basically type II cement with air entraining agent.

Type IIIA.    This is basically type III cement with air entraining agent.

       

Ordinary Portland Cement

The cements produced by intergrinding of cement clinker prepared in
rotary cement kiln along with 3-5 % gypsum only are called as Ordinary

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Portland Cement (OPC). This is the standard product that adequately
serves most concreting requirements, is the cheapest, and therefore by
far the most widely used. Its composition and properties are determined
by minimum quality standard as per BIS. Above these minima normal
portland cements may vary considerably from plant to plant and still
meet such specification requirements. within a given plant changes in
properties may occur, sometimes due to seasonal changes, sometimes
to changes in quarried raw materials, and some times to changes in
quarried raw materials, and some times to small changes in burning. 
Depending upon the strength requirement OPC is further classified as
OPC-33 grade, OPC-43 grade and OPC-53 grade. The range of
applications.

33 Grade OPC:
This cement is used for general civil construction work under normal
environmental conditions. The compressive strength of cement after 28
days test as per IS specification is 33 MPa. Due to low compressive
strength, this cement is normally not used where high grade of concrete
as M-20 and above is required. More useful for mass concreting and
plain cement concreting. It can be used for plastering and single storied
individual houses.

Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement, slag as obtained from blast
furnace is used. Slag is a waste product in the manufacturing process of
pig-iron and it contains the basic elements of  cement, namely, alumina,
lime and silica. Clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65
percent of slag.

    the properties of this cement are more or less the same as those of
ordinary cement. Its strength in early days is less and hence, it requires
longer curing period. It proves to be economical as slag which is a waste
product is used in its manufacture.

Portland Slag Cement

Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker
gypsum and granulated blast furnace slag in required proportions and
grinding the mixture to get a thorough and intimate mixture between the
constituents. It has the physical properties similar to those of OPC. In
addition it has low heat of hydration relatively better resistance to
chlorides, soil and water containing excessive amounts of sulphates or
alkali metals, alumina and iron as well as to acidic water. Due to low
heat of hydration this cement can be used in mass concrete. However in
cold weather the low heat of hydration of port land blast furnace cement
coupled with low rate of strength development can lead to thrust
damage.

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 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
The Portland Pozzolana Cement is produced by either intergrinding of
OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain
proportions (15% to 35%) or grinding the OPC clinker, gypsum and
Pozzolanic materials separately and thoroughly blending them in certain
proportions. A pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous
material like calcined clay, fly ash, volcanic ash, Silica fumes etc. It
produces less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance to attack of
aggressive water than ordinary Portland cement. Addition of pozzolana
does not contribute to the strength at early ages, but the strength similar
to those of OPC can be expected at later stages provided the concrete is
cured under moist conditions for a sufficient period. The use of PPC is
recommended under the following conditions.

a.      Useful in marine and hydraulic constructions.

b.      In sewage works .

c.      In mass concrete works.

Sulphate Resisting Cement

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement is a type of Portland Cement in
which the amount of tricalcium aluminate (C 3A) is restricted to less than
5 % and (2 C3A + C4AF) less than 25%. The SRC is particularly
beneficial in conditions where the concrete is exposed to the risk of
deterioration due to sulphate attack such as in contact with soils and
ground waters containing excessive amounts of sulphates. The use of
sulphate resisting cement is recommended under the following
conditions.

(a) Concrete is to be used in marine condition;

(b) Concrete to be used in foundation and basement, where soil is

infested with sulphates;

(c) Concrete used for fabrication of pipes which are likely to be buried
in marshy region or sulphate bearing soil;

(d)  Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment

works.

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 (e)  Foundations, piles

(f)   Chemical, Fertilizers and Sugar factories

(g)  Food processing industries and Petrochemical projects

(h)  Construction of building along the coastal area is within 50 km

from sea.

  White Cement

This is like ordinary Portland cement prepared from such raw materials
free from colouring oxides of iron, manganese or chromium. It is white in
colour and used for floor finish, plaster work, ornamental works etc. Its
initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.

Quick Setting Cement:

This cement is produced by adding a small percentage of aluminum

sulphate and reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker grinding.
The setting action of cement starts within five minutes after addition of
water and it becomes hard like stone in less than 30 minutes or so. The
use of quick setting cement is recommended under the following
conditions.

a) Under water construction where pumping is involved;

b)      Grouting operations.

Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041-1990):

This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement but develops early

strength. The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the
higher fineness of grinding, burning of ingredients at higher temperatures
,higher C3S and lower C2S content .The comparative strength of this
cement at the end of one day is about 11.5Mpa and that at the end of 3
days is about 21Mpa.It requires a short period of curing. As it attains
early strength it should not be used in mass concrete. The use of rapid
hardening cement is recommended in the following situations.

(a) In prefabricated concrete construction;

(b)  Where form work is required to be removed early for reuse

elsewhere;

(c)   Road repair works;

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 (d)  In cold weather concrete where the rapid rate of development of
strength reduces the vulnerability of concrete to the frost
damage.

  Hydrophobic Cement

This type of cement contains admixtures which form a water repellent

film around each cement grain and hence decreases the wetting ability
of cement. The usual hydrophobic admixtures are acidol ,
napthenesoap, oleic acid, etc. The hydrophobic cement is made from
OPC clinker. After grinding the cement particle is spread in one direction
and film forming materials are spread from another direction. Such that
every particle of cement is coated with very fine film of this water
repellant material which protects them from the bad effect of moisture
during storage and transportation. The use of hydrophobic cement
increases frost resistance and water resistance of concrete.

Expansive Cement:

This type of cement suffers no overall change in volume on drying.It is

produced by addition of expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and
stabilizing agent to ordinary cement .Hence it expands while other
cement shrinks. The use of PPC is recommended under the following
conditions.

a.           Repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.

b.            For grouting anchor bolts;
c.            Grouting machine foundations;
d.            In grouting pre-stress concrete ducts
e.             For construction of water retaining structures ;

 Low Heat Cement

This cement contain lower percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A and

higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C2S. This cement produce less
heat during the process of hydration and hence retard chemical action of
hardening so the rate of gain of strength. But the ultimate strength of low
heat cement is the same as that of ordinary Portland cement. As per
Indian standard specifications the 7 days strength of low heat cement is
not less than 16 Mpa .The other properties such as setting time and
soundness are same as that of OPC.

Testing of Cement
    Test of cement can be brought under two categories:

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 (a)-Field-testing

(b)Laboratory testing

Field testing
The cement can be tested in the field when it is used for minor works:
the following methods are used for field test of cement

(i)    Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should
not be any visible lumps. The colour of the cement should
normally be greenish gray.

(ii)     Thrust our hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool
feeling. There should not be any lump inside.

(iii)     Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should

give a smooth and not a gritty feeling.,

If a sample of cement satisfies the above field tests it may be

concluded that the cement is not bad. The above tests do not really
indicate that the cement is really good for important works.

 
Laboratory Testing: The following tests are usually conducted in the
laboratory.
 
(a) Fineness test:
This test is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement. The
fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration and hence
the rate of gain of strength and also the rate of evolution of heat. Finer
cement offers a greater surface area for hydration and hence faster the
development of strength. The disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is
susceptible to air-set and early deterioration. The smallest size of
particle in the cement may have a size about 1.5microns. By and large
the average size of cement particles may be taken as about 10 micron.
The particle size fraction below 3 microns has been found to have the
predominant effect on the strength at one day while 3-25 micron fraction
has a major influence on the 28 days strength. Increase in fineness of
cement is also found to increase the drying shrinkage of concrete. In
commercial cement it is suggested that there should be about 25-30 per
cent of particles of less than 7 micron in size.

Finess of cement is tested in two ways.

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 (i)                           By sieving.

(ii)                           By permeability apparatus test.

 Sieve test:

Cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15

minutes through IS Sieve No. 9  (90 microns). The residue is then
weighed and this weight should not be more than 10% of original weight .

Air permeability method:

In this test specific surface area of cement particles is calculated.

Specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of average size of
particles in the cement. generally Blain Air permeability apparatus is
used for this test. The specific surface of cement should not be less than
225 m2/kg.

(b)    Consistency Test:

    The following procedure is adopted to find out standard consistency.

(i)      Take about 300 gm of cement and add water of about 24 percent

by weight of cement.

(ii)      Mix water and cement on a non-porous surface. Mixing should be

done thoroughly.

(iii)    The paste should be filled into the vicat mould within 3-5 minutes
after addition of water to the cement. Then the mould should be
shake well to expel air within it. A standard plunger, 10 mm
diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought down to touch the
surface of the paste in the test block.

(iv)    Release the plunger quickly to allow to sink into the paste by its
own weight. The settlement of the plunger is noted. If the
penetration is 33-35 mm from the top, then the water added is
correct. If the penetration is not proper, the process is repeated
with different percentage of water till the desired penetration is
obtained.

(b) Setting Time:

This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage.

The setting time of   cement can be arbitrarily divided into two: the initial
setting time and the final setting time.

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Initial setting time:

It is the time elapsed between the moment that the water is added to the
cement, to the time that the paste loose its plasticity. In actual
construction dealing with cement paste, mortar or concrete certain time
is required for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing.
During this time the cement paste, mortar or concrete should be in
plastic condition. Normally a minimum of 30 minutes is given for mixing
and handling operations. The constituents and fineness of cement is
maintained in such a way that the concrete remains in plastic condition
for certain minimum time.

Final setting time:

It is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added to the
cement, and the time the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has
attained sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure. This time
should not be more than 10 hours. The vicats apparatus is used to test
the setting time of cement.

(d) Soundness Test:

The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in

cement and ensure that the cement does not show any appreciable
subsequent expansion after setting, causing disruption of the set and
hardened mass. This is due to inadequate burning or insufficiency High
percentage of magnesium content and calcium sulphate content may
cause unsoundness in cement. This test is performed with the help of Le
Chatelier apparatus.

(e) Strength Test:

Strength of cement can be of compressive strength and tensile

strength.

Compressive strength:
This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
It is indirectly found on cement sand mortar in specific proportions. The
standard sand is used for finding the strength of cement. A number of
mortar cubes are formed with each side 5 cm and kept it at a
temperature of 270 centigrade and at least 90% relative humidity for 24
hours inside the mould. These cubes are then taken from mould and
cured for 3 days, 7 days and 28 days to ascertain their strength at the
end of these periods. The compressive strength of 33 grade OPC at the
end of above days are as given below.

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 End of 3days – not less than 16 Mpa ;
End of 7 days - not less than 22 Mpa;
End of 28 days - not less than 33 Mpa;
Tensile strength:
This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive
strength of cement. At present it is generally used for rapid hardening
cement. The tensile strength at the end of 3 days and 7days should not
be less than 2Mpa and 2.5Mpa respectively.

Storage of Cement:
Cement should be stored carefully so that it may not absorb moisture
from the atmosphere. Following precautions are to be taken.

1) Moisture:
When cement is to be used for a long period, it should be stored in an
airtight container because if moisture absorption exceeds 5%, cement
becomes totally useless.

2) Period of storage:
Loose cement may be stored indefinitely in airtight containers. So it is
advisable to avoid storing of cement in non-airtight bags for a period
longer than three months.

3) Piles: 
The cement bags are stacked in piles. A distance of about 30 cm should
be kept between the piles of cement bags and exterior walls of the
building. Passages of width 90 cm should be provide between the piles.
For long storage the top and bottom of piles should be covered with
tarpaulins or waterproof papers.

4) Quality of cement:
Finely grounded cement is more active and absorbs moisture rapidly.
Hence extraordinary precautions should be taken to store for finely
ground cement.

5) Removal of cement:
It is advisable to remove cement in order of its storage period.
6) Storage shades:

for storing cement for a sufficiently long period storied shades of special
design should be constructed. Shades with few small windows should be
provided and they should be kept tightly shut. The floor should be above
ground with drainage facilities.

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