CT Notes

Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
Unit No.: Page No.: Lecture No.: Date:
UNIT-I
Composition of cement
Introduction
Portland cement gets its strength from chemical reactions between the cement and water. The
process is known as hydration. This is a complex process that is best understood by first
understanding the chemical composition of cement.
Manufacture of cement
Portland cement is manufactured by crushing, milling and proportioning the following materials:
Lime or calcium oxide, CaO: from limestone, chalk, shells, shale or calcareous rock
Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock
Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
Iron, Fe2O3: from from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone
The materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to produce a mixture with the desired
chemical composition and then ground and blended by one of two processes - dry process or wet
process. The materials are then fed through a kiln at 2,600º F to produce grayish-black pellets
known as clinker. The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which lower the melting point of
silica from 3,000 to 2600º F. After this stage, the clinker is cooled, pulverized and gypsum added
to regulate setting time. It is then ground extremely fine to produce cement.
Chemical shorthand
Because of the complex chemical nature of cement, a shorthand form is used to denote the
chemical compounds. The shorthand for the basic compounds is:

Compound Formula Shorthand

form
Calcium oxide (lime) Ca0 C
Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2 S
Aluminum oxide (alumina) Al2O3 A

Lecture Notes
Iron oxide Fe2O3 F
Water H2O H
Sulfate SO3 S
Chemical composition of clinker
The cement clinker formed has the following typical composition:

Compound Formula Shorthand % by

form weight1
Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6 C3A 10
Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2O10 C4AF 8

aluminoferrite
Belite or dicalcium silicate Ca2SiO5 C2S 20
Alite or tricalcium silicate Ca3SiO4 C3S 55
Sodium oxide Na2O N )
Potassium oxide K2O K )Up to 2
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O CSH2 5
Properties of cement compounds
These compounds contribute to the properties of cement in different ways

Tricalcium aluminate, C3A:-
It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but has little strength contribution.
Gypsum slows down the hydration rate of C3A. Cement low in C3A is sulfate resistant.

Tricalcium silicate, C3S:-

Lecture Notes
This compound hydrates and hardens rapidly. It is largely responsible for portland cement’s initial
set and early strength gain.
Dicalcium silicate, C2S:
C2S hydrates and hardens slowly. It is largely responsible for strength gain after one week.

Ferrite, C4AF:
This is a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
(from 3,000o F to 2,600o F). It hydrates rapidly, but does not contribute much to strength of the
cement paste.
By mixing these compounds appropriately, manufacturers can produce different types of cement
to suit several construction environments.
Lecture Notes
Heat of hydration of cement
Hydration is an exothermic process, that will liberate heat through chemical reactions. The process
of hydration can be easily followed by monitoring the production of heat that accompanies the
reaction. This is done by civic mortar from a batch of concrete and weighing it into a bottle which
is placed into an insulated container. A thermistor is then impeded into the fresh mortar. The
output of the thermistor is recorded by the computer. The result is plotted as a curve of
temperature v/s the time. The area under the major peak can be related to the early strength
development.
Stages Of Hydration Of Cement
The five stages involved in the hydration of cement are explained with respect to the figure-2.
There are Five stages of cement hydration:
1. Initial Hydrolysis
2. Induction Period or the Dormant Period
3. Acceleration
4. Deceleration
5. Steady State
Fig.2.The Heat of Hydration - Calorimetry curve.

Lecture Notes
Stage 1- Initial Hydrolysis: The initial dissolution of cement will result in the sort release of heat
shown by the first peak in the calorimetry curve.
Stage 2 - Induction or Dormant Period: After the initial dissolution process, the hydration products
are precipitated on the surface of each cement particle. The layer acts as a protective barrier and
temporarily delays the dissolution of the particle. This slows down the reaction for a period of
several hours. This is called as the Dormant Period.
The existence of the dormant period allows the concrete to be transported to the construction site
and placed and finished in the forms.
Stage 3- Hydration Acceleration: The end of the dormant period shows the beginning of the
setting at which time the cement starts to react more rapidly with water. This will result in the
formation of new hydration products.
Stage 4- Hydration Deceleration: This period will undergo formation of hydration products but the
rate of reaction and the dissolution is very controlled and slow.
Stage 5 - Steady State: This is the stage that is for a longer period that is equal to the age of the
structure. The hydration reaction carried out throughout this period at a very slow rate
Lecture Notes
GEL/SPACE RATIO
As propounded by Duff Abrams many research workers commented on the validity of
water/cement ratio law. They have focused on a few of the limitations of the water/ cement ratio
law and argued that Abrams water/cement ratio law can only be called a rule and not a law
because Abrams’ statement does not include many qualifications necessary for its validity to call it
a law. Some of the limitations are that the strength at any water/cement ratio depends on the
following things…
1.Degree of hydration
2.Chemical and Physical properties
3.The temperature at which the hydration takes place
4.Air content (in case of air entrained concrete)
5.the change in the effective water/cement ratio and the formation of fissures and cracks due to
bleeding or shrinkage
Instead of relating the strength to water/cement ratio, the strength can be more correctly related to
the solid products of hydration of cement to the space available for formation of this product.
Powers and Brownyard have established the relationship between the strength and gel/space ratio.
This ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of
volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary pores.
Lecture Notes
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Aggregates are used in concrete to provide economy in the cost of concrete. Aggregates act as
filler only. These do not react with cement and water.
But there are properties or characteristics of aggregate which influence the properties of resulting
concrete mix. These are as follow.
1. COMPOSITION
Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalies in cement and cause excessive
expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete mix should never be used. Therefore it is
required to test aggregates to know whether there is presence of any such constituents in aggregate
or not.
2. SIZE & SHAPE
The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the quantity of cement required in
concrete mix and hence ultimately economy of concrete. For the preparation of economical
concrete mix on should use largest coarse aggregates feasible for the structure. IS-456 suggests
following recommendation to decide the maximum size of coarse aggregate to be used in P.C.C &
R.C.C mix.
Maximum size of aggregate should be less than
One-fourth of the minimum dimension of the concrete member.
One-fifth of the minimum dimension of the reinforced concrete member.
The minimum clear spacing between reinforced bars or 5 mm less than the minimum cover
between the reinforced bars and form, whichever is smaller for heavily reinforced concrete
members such as the ribs of the main bars.
Remember that the size & shape of aggregate particles influence the properties of freshly mixed
concrete more as compared to those of hardened concrete.
3. SURFACE TEXTURE
The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles and cement paste depends
upon the surface texture, surface roughness and surface porosity of the aggregate particles.
If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In porous surface
aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of cement paste in the pores.
4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Lecture Notes
The ratio of weight of oven dried aggregates maintained for 24 hours at a temperature of 100 to
1100C, to the weight of equal volume of water displaced by saturated dry surface aggregate is
known as specific gravity of aggregates.
Specific gravities are primarily of two types.
Apparent specific gravity
Bulk specific gravity
Specific gravity is a mean to decide the suitability of the aggregate. Low specific gravity generally
indicates porous, weak and absorptive materials, whereas high specific gravity indicates materials
of good quality. Specific gravity of major aggregates falls within the range of 2.6 to 2.9.
Specific gravity values are also used while designing concrete mix.
5. BULK DENSITY
It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of unit volume. It is
generally expressed in kg/litre.
Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors.
Degree of compaction
Grading of aggregates
Shape of aggregate particles
6. VOIDS
The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as voids. The volume of void equals
the difference between the gross volume of the aggregate mass and the volume occupied by the
particles alone.
7. POROSITY & ABSORPTION
The minute holes formed in rocks during solidification of the molten magma, due to air bubbles,
are known as pores. Rocks containing pores are called porous rocks.
Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the weight of very dry aggregates and
the weight of the saturated aggregates with surface dry conditions.
Depending upon the amount of moisture content in aggregates, it can exist in any of the 4
conditions.
Lecture Notes
Very dry aggregate ( having no moisture)
Dry aggregate (contain some moisture in its pores)
Saturated surface dry aggregate (pores completely filled with moisture but no moisture on surface)
Moist or wet aggregates (pores are filled with moisture and also having moisture on surface)
8. BULKING OF SAND
It can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the quantity of sand (i.e. fine aggregate) in a
moist condition over the volume of the same quantity of dry or completely saturated sand. The
ratio of the volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry, is called bulking factor.
Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand
When water is added to dry and loose sand, a thin film of water is formed around the sand
particles. Interlocking of air in between the sand particles and the film of water tends to push the
particles apart due to surface tension and thus increase the volume. But in case of fully saturated
sand the water films are broken and the volume becomes equal to that of dry sand.
9. FINENESS MODULUS
Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of

aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing
this sum by 100.
Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is. More
fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus
indicates that the aggregate is finer.
10. SPECIFIC SURFACE OF AGGREGATE
The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific surface. This is an indirect
measure of the aggregate grading. Specific surface increases with the reduction in the size of
aggregate particle. The specific surface area of the fine aggregate is very much more than that of
coarse aggregate.
11. DELETERIOUS MATERIALS
Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so as to affect the strength
and durability of the concrete. Such harmful materials are called deleterious materials. Deleterious
materials may cause one of the following effects
To interfere hydration of cement

Lecture Notes
To prevent development of proper bond
To reduce strength and durability
To modify setting times
Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as under
Organic impurities
Clay , silt & dust
Salt contamination
12. CRUSHING VALUE
The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of resistance of an aggregate to crushing
under gradually applied compressive load. The aggregate crushing strength value is a useful factor
to know the behavior of aggregates when subjected to compressive loads.
13. IMPACT VALUE
The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden
shock or impact. The impact value of an aggregate is sometime used as an alternative to its
crushing value.
14. ABRASION VALUE OF AGGREGATES
The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance of an aggregate to wear when it is rotated
in a cylinder along with some abrasive charge.
Lecture Notes
Classification of Aggregates as per Size and Shape
Aggregates are classified based on so many considerations, but here we are going to discuss about
their shape and size classifications in detail.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape
We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc., so,
it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect the
workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is not
only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.
Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types
Rounded aggregates
Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
Angular aggregates
Flaky aggregates
Elongated aggregates
Flaky and elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore
gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more
workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high
strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.
Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available in
the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will give
lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly higher than
rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.
Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more compressive
Lecture Notes
strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high
strength concrete manufacturing.
Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it
is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the
60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.
Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.
Flaky and Elongated Aggregates
When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it is
said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable for
concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Size
Aggregates are available in nature in different sizes. The size of aggregate used may be related to
the mix proportions, type of work etc. the size distribution of aggregates is called grading of
aggregates.
Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:
Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Fine Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as fine
aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under this
category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of the
fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.
Fine aggregate Size variation

Lecture Notes
Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm
Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm
Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm
Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm
Clay <0.002
Coarse Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate
used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal
strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of various coarse
aggregates given below.
Coarse aggregate Size
Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm
Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm
Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm
Cobbles 64mm – 256mm
Boulders >256mm
Lecture Notes
UNIT-II
Properties of Hardened Concrete:
1. STRENGTH
In simple language, the strength of concrete means the maximum amount of load which it can
handle. “In common practice, it is the power of the concrete which is considered its most valuable
property. In fact, high-strength concrete is synonymous with good quality concrete.
The Strength of Concrete can be determined by the compressive strength and tensile strength.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
It may be defined as the maximum compressive load that can be taken by concrete per unit area. It
has been shown that with special care and control, concrete can be made to bear as high loads as
800 kg/sq.cm or even more.
In practice, however, concrete with compressive Strength between 200-500 kg/sq.cm can be easily
made on the site for the common type of construction. The compressive strength is also called the
crushing strength, and it is determined by loading axially cube shaped (or cylindrical shaped, in
the USA) specimens made out of the concrete. The tests are carried out in 3 days, 7 days and 28
days after the casting of the samples.
It has been observed that the compressive (crushing) strength of concrete is influenced by a huge
number of factors. Some of the most important factors are :
i. Type of Cement:
The composition, quality and ‘age‘ of the material which is used in the manufacture of cements
that have been stored for the considerable time make concretes of lower strength.Cements with
higher proportions of tri-calcium silicate produce concretes that show higher strengths, at least in
earlier stages. Similarly, finer the particle size of the cement, higher is the ultimate compressive
strength.
ii.Nature of Aggregates.
Sand and coarse aggregates form the other two essential components of concrete. A good bond
between cement and the aggregates is possible only when the aggregates have sharp edges, clean
surfaces, and rough texture.
Smooth and rounded aggregates result in comparatively weak bonds. Similarly, the aggregates
used in the concrete making should have in themselves good compressive strength.
Lecture Notes
iii. Water-Cement Ratio.
The compressive strength decreases, in general, with increasing water cement ratio. Hence, when
minimum water has been used just to ensure complete hydration of the cement, the resulting
concrete will give maximum compressive strength on proper compaction.
iv. Curing Conditions.
Great importance is attached to proper curing of concrete after it’s laying for obtaining maximum
compressive strength. Incomplete curing and intermittent drying of concrete during the curing
period may cause a loss in the compressive strength to the extent of 40 percent or even more.
v. Weather Conditions.
The same concrete placed in different climates –extremely cold and dry hot, may develop different
strength values. The cause is related to incomplete hydration of the cement in the concrete.
vi. Admixtures.
Certain admixtures are added to the concrete at the mixing stage for achieving some specific
purposes. It has been observed that certain admixtures especially calcium chloride, increase the
compressive strength.Some other admixtures (e.g. air entraining agents) however, affect the
compressive strength adversely if proper controls are not maintained on the water-cement ratio.
vii. Method of Preparation.
Improper mixing of the concrete and careless transport and placing may result in poor (in strength)
quality. despite the best cement and aggregates used in it.
It is the workmanship that determines the quality of the concrete-work in the ultimate analysis. A
skilled worker can produce best concrete-mix despite some other deficiencies.
An incompetent labor, however, may spoil the entire work despite being given the best-designed
concrete-mix. The voids left in the concrete on compaction and curing have a profound influence
on the strength of the concrete.
Tensile Strength:
Lecture Notes
Plain concrete (without steel reinforcement) is quite weak in tensile strength which may vary from
1/8th to 1/20th of the ultimate compressive strength.
It is primarily for this reason that steel bars (reinforcement) are introduced into the concrete at the
laying stage to get a block of concrete which is very Strong in compression as well as in tension.
In plain concrete, tensile strength depends largely on the same factors as of the compressive
strength.
The Tensile strength of concrete becomes a valuable property when it is to be used in road making
and runways. It is determined by using indirect methods.
In one of such methods, it is deduced from the flexural strength test. In this test, a beam of
concrete is cast in standard dimensions depending upon the nominal size of the aggregate.
Then, the beam is properly cured and tested after 28 days.
In the second indirect method, called the split-cylinder method, the cylinder of specified
dimensions is made to fail under tension by applying compressive load across the diameter. This is
termed as Splitting Tensile Strength.
The testing machine is adjusted to distribute the load along the entire, length of the cylinder; From
the load at failure, tensile strength is calculated.
2. Durability:
Lecture Notes
Durability is the second most important quality of hardened concrete. It may be defined as the
capacity of hardened concrete to withstand all the forces of deterioration that are likely to act on it,
after setting, in a given environment.
Among these forces, the following are more likely to act.
1. Frost action.
2. Abrasive forces.
3. Chemical action.
4. Alkali-aggregate reaction.
A brief note on each of these is given below.
i. Frost Action.
Frost Action is a major cause of deterioration of concrete in Cold Climates. It takes place due to
freezing or water within the concrete pores and cavities during extremely cold weather.
Water on freezing expands and exerts pressure on the walls of the pores. This cyclic freezing of
water in the pores are responsible for the development of cracks of various nature in the concrete.
To minimize frost actions following measures should be taken.
 In cold weather, the water-cement ratio should be kept as low as possible. This will not
allow any extra water to remain within the concrete pores. Hence frost formation will not take
place.
 Use good drainage and covering methods for removing any surface water from staying on
the concrete during the curing process.
ii. Chemical Attack.
Concrete is liable to attack to various degrees by acids alkalies and salt solutions.
Among the acids, hydrochloric. Sulphuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid and
formic acid are very harmful to concrete.
The sources of these acids can be from within or outside the environment in which concrete has
been used. Thus, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid may be present in industrial and domestic
sewage.
Lecture Notes
They will destroy gradually the calcium hydroxide components of concrete used for sewage
disposal. Other acids may attack the concrete used in the industrial buildings of acids.
The organic acids are common though in traces, in food processing factories and dairy farms.
Concrete used in these buildings will gradually deteriorate from these acids at a fast rate.
iii. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction.
Sodium and potassium hydroxides of cements are capable of reaction with silica. Since amorphous
silica is a common component of many coarse aggregates, such an alkali-aggregate reaction may
create harmful effects on cement concrete.
This is because the gel-like silicate structures produced by the above reaction are quite weak and
unstable and result in greater expansion.
These may be the cause of frequent cracking in some concretes. For avoiding this reaction, either
the percentage of alkalies (K2O and Na20) has to be kept very low in the Portland Cement.
Or a great care has to be taken for selecting aggregates free of amorphous silica like opal, chert,
cristobalite, etc.
Lecture Notes
3. DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:
CREEP. This defines the behavior of concrete under loads. It is now well established that
concrete is not a truly elastic material. Also, it is not an entirely plastic material. When hardened
concrete is loaded, it deforms
1. partly as a result of elastic strain (which is recovered on the removal of the load);
2. partly as a result of plastic strain (a permanent deformation).
This latter non-elastic time dependent deformation is a typical property of concrete and is
commonly referred as CREEP. Among the various causes of creep, the following may be
mentioned:
1. Closure of the void-structures of concrete on application of load;

2. Squeezing of water from within the cement gel when the concrete is loaded,
3. Flow of cement-water paste, in a viscous state, causing a permanent shrinkage under load;
4. Readjustment of aggregates under load.
It is believed that the proportion of mix and the type of cement used in concrete have a profound
influence on the rate of creep. Concrete mixes with higher water-cement ratio will also show
higher creep rates.
Creep is thought to be beneficial in some cases and harmful in other cases.
In reinforced concrete, it helps in transferring stresses to the reinforcement and, thereby reducing

chances of failure by stress-concentration.
SHRINKAGE:
Hardened Concrete undergoes in three types of shrinkage that are important with respect to its
dimensional stability:
1. Plastic shrinkage.
2. Drying shrinkage.
3. Thermal shrinkage.
i. Plastic Shrinkage.
This is the shrinkage that the freshly placed concrete undergoes till it sets completely. It may also
be called initial shrinkage.
Lecture Notes
Such a volumetric change is due to loss of water from the fresh concrete due to evaporation,
bleeding, seepage and soaking by formwork.
Excessive shrinkage at initial stages may develop extensive cracking in the concrete on the setting.
Therefore, all precautions should be taken to avoid excessive loss of water due to evaporation.
ii. Drying Shrinkage :
As the concrete has completely set and hardens, some further shrinkage may result because of
contraction of gel-structure due to further loss of moisture, or drying (against the term evaporation
used in the first type of shrinkage).
This kind of shrinkage is practically an essential and irreversible property of concrete. It has to be
met with by careful design of reinforcement to avoid its ill effects (cracking of hardened concrete).
iii. Thermal Shrinkage.
This may be due to fall in temperature of concrete from the time it is laid till it sets completely.
Thus, when concrete laid at 30°C cools down to 15°-18°C, some shrinkage may be expected. It
may be negligible on its own account. But when added to drying shrinkage, it becomes necessary.
Lecture Notes
Permeability of concrete
If concrete is impermeable, corrosive agents cannot penetrate and attack it. Concrete basically has
two types of pores, which determine permeability. These are capillary pores (with a diameter
varying between 0.01 to 10 micron) in the cement, paste which coats the aggregates and larger
micro voids, between 1 mm to 10 mm, which are caused by faulty compaction of fresh concrete.
When voids are interconnected because of their larger number and size a continuous link is
formed, which makes the concrete permeable.
FACTOR’S CONTROLLING PERMEABILITY
There are three major factors which determine the permeability in concrete.
(a) Water cement ration,
(b) Compaction and curing.
PERMEABILITY REDUCED BY SUPERPLASTICISERS
As per tests were carried out to determine the effect of superplasticisers on water permeability 150
mm size cubes water stored for 28 day’s in lime – saturated water at 230C and subjected to water
pressure on one face.
Lecture Notes
Factors affecting strength test results of concrete

Compressive strength is the most important property of concrete. The compressive strength of
concrete is determined in the laboratory in controlled conditions. On the basis of this test result we
judge the quality of concrete. But sometimes the strength test results vary so widely that it
becomes difficult to reach at any conclusion. This variation in test results can be avoided by taking
necessary steps.
There are 5 factors which influence strength of concrete when tested for compressive strength.
These factors are mentioned below.
1. Shape & Size of Test Specimens

2. Height to Diameter Ratio
3. Rate of Application of Load
4. Moisture Content in the Test Specimen
5. Material Used for Capping
1. SHAPE & SIZE OF TEST SPECIMENS

Shape & size of specimens affect the strength test result of concrete to a large extent. If two cubes
of different sizes but prepared from the same concrete, are tested then they will show different test
results. For example, strength of a cube specimen having 10 cm in size is 10% less than strength
of a cube specimen having 15 cm in size.
If two cubes of different shapes (such as cube & cylinder) are tested, then they will show different
test results. From experiment it has been found that strength of the cylinder of size 15 cm diameter
and 30 cm long is equal to 0.8 times the strength of 15 cm cube.
2. HEIGHT TO DIAMETER RATIO
Generally for testing cylindrical concrete specimen, the height to diameter ratio is kept 2. But
sometimes it is not possible to keep the height/diameter ratio equal to 2 when the core is cut from
road pavement or airfield or any part of the structure.
If the length of the core is too long, it can be trimmed to h/d ratio of 2:1, before testing. But if the
length of core specimen is short, it is necessary to apply a correction factor to the test result.
A correction factor according to the height / diameter ratio of the specimen after capping is
obtained from the curve as shown below.
Correction factor for height-diameter ratio of a core
The product of this correction factor and the measured compressive strength will give the
corrected compressive strength. This corrected compressive strength is equivalent to the strength
of a cylinder having height / diameter ratio of 2.
3. RATE OF APPLICATION OF LOAD
Rate of application of load has a considerable influence on the strength test results. If the rate of
application of load is slow, or there is some time lag,. Then it will result into lower values of
strength. The reason behind this is creep. Due to slower application of load, the specimen will
undergo some amount of creep which in turn increases the strain. And this increased strain is
responsible for failure of test sample, resulting lower strength values.
Lecture Notes
4. MOISTURE CONTENT IN THE TEST SPECIMEN

The presence of moisture content in the test specimen also affects the test result to a great extent.
If two cubes (one is wet & another is dry) prepared from the same concrete, are tested at the same
age, then the dry cube will give higher strength than the wet cube. This may be caused due to the
reduction of cohesion of concrete ingredients due to presence of water.
To get reproducible results, it is advised that the concrete cubes or cylinders should be tested
immediately on removal from the curing tank. Because if you test concrete in dry condition then
the test results will vary largely.
5. MATERIAL USED FOR CAPPING
There are various methods available for capping concrete cylinders such as, sulphur capping,
gypsum capping & cement mortar capping etc The type of capping material used has also some
amount of effect on the value obtained from strength test. So it is suggested that for a particular
construction project, the method of capping the concrete cylinders should be one. And this one
method should not be changed at any times. By employing this method we can avoid wide
variations in test results and can judge the quality of concrete.
Lecture Notes
Concrete Maturity
Concrete maturity indicates how far curing has progressed. Maturity is the relationship between
concrete temperature, time, and strength gain. It is represented by an index value that can be
measured in real time in the field.
The Maturity Method
The maturity method, often simply referred to as maturity, is a way of evaluating
new concrete’s in-place strength by relating time and temperature measurements to actual strength
values.
To expedite schedules, increase safety, and improve construction methods, construction teams
want to know the strength of their concrete at the job site in real time. Since maturity is related to
concrete strength, the maturity method is a way to accomplish this without solely relying on
standard test specimens and laboratory testing.
Maturity is calculated by tracking changes in fresh concrete temperature over time. Since each
concrete mix has its own strength-maturity relationship, we can use maturity to estimate the
strength of that mix at any moment after placement. When we know the maturity of a certain
concrete, we can use that concrete’s specific strength-maturity relationship to make a reliable
estimate of its strength.
Basic Steps
1. Track internal temperatures during curing
2. Use the tracked internal temperature history to calculate maturity
3. Use the strength-maturity relationship to estimate strength
When using the maturity method, construction teams can estimate real-time strength gain of in-
place concrete on the job site. There’s no need to waste valuable construction time waiting for the
strength of standard test specimens to catch up to the in-place concrete.
Without maturity monitoring, in-place concrete strength is estimated by performing compressive
cylinder tests in a laboratory. Relying solely on lab tests requires several specimens and can waste
valuable time if a project’s in-place concrete reaches sufficient strength before standard test
intervals. In the construction business, time is money.
To save time and money on a project, the construction team monitors maturity to quickly
determine when concrete has reached its required strength.
Key Maturity Benefits
1. Concrete strength can be evaluated in real-time.
2. Less time is spent waiting for test specimens to catch up to concrete strength.
3. The number of test specimens required for QC and potentially QA will decrease.
4. Tendons may be stressed, forms and shores may be stripped and removed, and loads may
be applied sooner than otherwise anticipated.
5. Expedited schedules may result in bonuses.
Lecture Notes
Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete
Non-destructive testing of concrete is a method to obtain the compressive strength and other
properties of concrete from the existing structures. This test provides immediate results and actual
strength and properties of concrete structure.
The standard method of evaluating the quality of concrete in buildings or structures is to test
specimens cast simultaneously for compressive, flexural and tensile strengths.
The main disadvantages are that results are not obtained immediately; that concrete in specimens
may differ from that in the actual structure as a result of different curing and compaction
conditions; and that strength properties of a concrete specimen depend on its size and shape.
Although there can be no direct measurement of the strength properties of structural concrete for
the simple reason that strength determination involves destructive stresses, several non-
destructive methods of assessment have been developed.
These depend on the fact that certain physical properties of concrete can be related to strength and
can be measured by non-destructive methods. Such properties include hardness, resistance to
penetration by projectiles, rebound capacity and ability to transmit ultrasonic pulses and X- and Y-
rays.
These non-destructive methods may be categorized as penetration tests, rebound tests, pull-out
techniques, dynamic tests, radioactive tests, maturity concept. It is the purpose of this Digest to
describe these methods briefly, outlining their advantages and disadvantages.
Methods of Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete

Following are different methods of NDT on concrete:
1. Penetration method
2. Rebound hammer method
3. Pull out test method
4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method
5. Radioactive methods
6. Penetration Tests on Concrete
The Windsor probe is generally considered to be the best means of testing penetration. Equipment
consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy probes, loaded cartridges, a depth
gauge for measuring penetration of probes and other related equipment.
A probe, diameter 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) and length 3.125 in. (8.0 cm), is driven into the concrete by
means of a precision powder charge. Depth of penetration provides an indication of the
compressive strength of the concrete.
Although calibration charts are provided by the manufacturer, the instrument should be calibrated
for type of concrete and type and size of aggregate used.
Lecture Notes
Limitations and Advantages

The probe test produces quite variable results and should not be expected to give accurate values
of concrete strength. It has, however, the potential for providing a quick means of checking quality
and maturity of in situ concrete.
It also provides a means of assessing strength development with curing. The test is essentially
non-destructive, since concrete and structural members can be tested in situ, with only minor
patching of holes on exposed faces.
Rebound Hammer Method
The rebound hammer is a surface hardness tester for which an empirical correlation has been
established between strength and rebound number.
The only known instrument to make use of the rebound principle for concrete testing is the
Schmidt hammer, which weighs about 4 lb (1.8 kg) and is suitable for both laboratory and field
work. It consists of a spring-controlled hammer mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular
housing.
The hammer is forced against the surface of the concrete by the spring and the distance of rebound
is measured on a scale. The test surface can be horizontal, vertical or at any angle but the
instrument must be calibrated in this position.
Calibration can be done with cylinders (6 by 12 in., 15 by 30 cm) of the same cement and
aggregate as will be used on the job. The cylinders are capped and firmly held in a compression
machine.
Several readings are taken, well distributed and reproducible, the average representing the rebound
number for the cylinder. This procedure is repeated with several cylinders, after which
compressive strengths are obtained.
The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an
indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of ±15 to ±20 per cent is possible only for specimens
cast cured and tested under conditions for which calibration curves have been established.
The results are affected by factors such as smoothness of surface, size and shape of specimen,
moisture condition of the concrete, type of cement and coarse aggregate, and extent of carbonation
of surface.
Lecture Notes
Pull-Out Tests on Concrete

A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull from the concrete a
specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3 in.
(7.6 cm).
The concrete is simultaneously in tension and in shear, but the force required to pull the concrete
out can be related to its compressive strength.
The pull-out technique can thus measure quantitatively the in-situ strength of concrete when
proper correlations have been made. It has been found, over a wide range of strengths, that pull-
out strengths have a coefficient of variation comparable to that of compressive strength.

Although pullout tests do not measure the interior strength of mass concrete, they do give
information on the maturity and development of strength of a representative part of it. Such tests
have the advantage of measuring quantitatively the strength of concrete in place.
Their main disadvantage is that they have to be planned in advance and pull-out assemblies set
into the formwork before the concrete is placed. The pull-out, of course, creates some minor
damage.
The test can be non-destructive, however, if a minimum pullout force is applied that stops short of
failure but makes certain that a minimum strength has been reached. This is information of distinct
value in determining when forms can be removed safely.
Dynamic Non Destructive Tests on Concrete
At present the ultrasonic pulse velocity method is the only one of this type that shows potential for
testing concrete strength in situ. It measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing
through the concrete.
The fundamental design features of all commercially available units are very similar, consisting of
a pulse generator and a pulse receiver.
Pulses are generated by shock-exciting piezo-electric crystals, with similar crystals used in the
receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through the concrete is measured by electronic
measuring circuits.
Pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both laboratory-sized specimens and completed concrete
structures, but some factors affect measurement:
There must be smooth contact with the surface under test; a coupling medium such as a thin film
of oil is mandatory.
It is desirable for path-lengths to be at least 12 in. (30 cm) in order to avoid any errors introduced
by heterogeneity.
It must be recognized that there is an increase in pulse velocity at below-freezing temperature
owing to freezing of water; from 5 to 30°C (41 – 86°F) pulse velocities are not temperature
dependent.
Lecture Notes
The presence of reinforcing steel in concrete has an appreciable effect on pulse velocity. It is
therefore desirable and often mandatory to choose pulse paths that avoid the influence of
reinforcing steel or to make corrections if steel is in the pulse path.
Applications and Limitations
The pulse velocity method is an ideal tool for establishing whether concrete is uniform. It can be
used on both existing structures and those under construction.
Usually, if large differences in pulse velocity are found within a structure for no apparent reason,
there is strong reason to presume that defective or deteriorated concrete is present.
High pulse velocity readings are generally indicative of good quality concrete. A general relation
between concrete quality and pulse velocity is given in Table.
Table: Quality of Concrete and Pulse Velocity
General Conditions Pulse Velocity ft/sec
Excellent Above 15,000
Good 12,000-15,000
Questionable 10,000-12,000
Poor 7,000-10,000
Very Poor below 7,000
Fairly good correlation can be obtained between cube compressive strength and pulse velocity.
These relations enable the strength of structural concrete to be predicted within ±20 per cent,
provided the types of aggregate and mix proportions are constant.
The pulse velocity method has been used to study the effects on concrete of freeze-thaw action,
sulphate attack, and acidic waters. Generally, the degree of damage is related to a reduction in
pulse velocity. Cracks can also be detected.
Great care should be exercised, however, in using pulse velocity measurements for these purposes
since it is often difficult to interpret results. Sometimes the pulse does not travel through the
damaged portion of the concrete.
The pulse velocity method can also be used to estimate the rate of hardening and strength
development of concrete in the early stages to determine when to remove formwork. Holes have to
be cut in the formwork so that transducers can be in direct contact with the concrete surface.
As concrete ages, the rate of increase of pulse velocity slows down much more rapidly than the
rate of development of strength, so that beyond a strength of 2,000 to 3,000 psi (13.6 to 20.4 MPa)
accuracy in determining strength is less than ±20%.
Accuracy depends on careful calibration and use of the same concrete mix proportions and
aggregate in the test samples used for calibration as in the structure.
Lecture Notes
In summary, ultrasonic pulse velocity tests have a great potential for concrete control, particularly
for establishing uniformity and detecting cracks or defects. Its use for predicting strength is much
more limited, owing to the large number of variables affecting the relation between strength and
pulse velocity.
Radioactive Methods of NDT on Concrete

Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the location of reinforcement,
measure density and perhaps establish whether honeycombing has occurred in structural concrete
units. Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe.
Lecture Notes
The equipment is quite simple and running costs are small, although the initial price can be high.
Concrete up to 18 in. (45 cm) thick can be examined without difficulty.
Purpose of Non-Destructive Tests on Concrete
A variety of Non Destructive Testing (NDT) methods have been developed or are under
development for investigating and evaluating concrete structures.
These methods are aimed at estimation of strength and other properties; monitoring and
assessing corrosion; measuring crack size and cover; assessing grout quality; detecting
defects and identifying relatively more vulnerable areas in concrete structures.
Many of NDT methods used for concrete testing have their origin to the testing of more
homogeneous, metallic system. These methods have a sound scientific basis, but
heterogeneity of concrete makes interpretation of results somewhat difficult.There could
be many parameters such as materials, mix, workmanship and environment, which
influence the results of measurements.
Moreover, these test s measure some other property of concrete (e.g. hardness) and the
results are interpreted to assess a different property of concrete e.g. strength, which is of
primary interest.Thus, interpretation of results is very important and difficult job where
generalization is not possible. As such, operators can carry out tests but interpretation of
results must be left to experts having experience and knowledge of application of such
non-destructive tests.
Purposes of Non-destructive Tests are:
1. Estimating the in-situ compressive strength
2. Estimating the uniformity and homogeneity
3. Estimating the quality in relation to standard requirement
4. Identifying areas of lower integrity in comparison to other parts
5. Detection of presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
6. Monitoring changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time
7. Identification of reinforcement profile and measurement of cover, bar diameter, etc.
8. Condition of prestressing/reinforcement steel with respect to corrosion
9. Chloride, sulphate, alkali contents or degree of carbonation
10. Measurement of Elastic Modulus
11. Condition of grouting in prestressing cable ducts
UNIT-3
Batching
Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by mass and
introducing them into the mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but most
Lecture Notes
specifications require that batching be done by mass rather than volume. Percentage of accuracy
for measurement of concrete materials as follows.
Cement:
When the quantity of cement to be batched exceeds 30% of scale capacity, the measuring accuracy
should be within 1% of required mass. If measuring quantity is less than 30% i.e. for smaller
batches then the measuring accuracy should be within 4% of the required quantity.
Aggregates:
If the measurement is more than 30% of the scale capacity then the measuring accuracy should be
within 1%. If measurement is less than 30% then the measuring accuracy should be within less
than 3%.
Water:
Water is measured in volumetric quantity as 1 litre = 1kg. In case of water, the measuring
accuracy should be within 1%.
Admixtures:
For mineral admixtures same accuracy as that required for cement.For chemical admixtures same
accuracy as that required for water. Mineral admixtures accuracy is same as that of cement
because it is used as partial replacement of cement. As chemical admixtures are liquid or added to
water therefore its accuracy is same as that of water.
Mixing
The mixing operation consists of rotation or stirring, the objective being to coat the surface the all
aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blind all the ingredients of the concrete into a
uniform mass; this uniformity must not be disturbed by the process of discharging from the mixer.
Batch mixer
The usual type of mixer is a batch mixer, which means that one batch of concrete is mixed and
discharged before any more materials are put into the mixer. There are four types of batch mixer.
Tilting drum mixer:
A tilting drum mixer is one whose drum in which mixing take place is tilted for discharging. The
drum is conical or bowl shaped with internal vanes, and the discharge is rapid and unsegregated so
that these mixers are suitable for mixes of low workability and for those containing large size
aggregate.
Non tilting drum mixer:

A non tilting drum is one in which the axis of the mixer is always horizontal, and discharge take
place by inserting a chute into the drum or by reversing the direction or rotation of drum. Because
of slow rate of discharge, some segregation may occur.
Lecture Notes
Pan type mixer:

A pan type mixer is a forced–action mixer, as distinct from drum mixer which relies on the free
fall of the concrete inside the drum. The pan mixer consist of a circular pan rotating about its axis
with one or two stars paddles rotating about vertical axis of pan.
Dual drum mixer:
A dual drum is sometimes used in highway construction. Here there are two drums in series,
concrete being mixed part of the time in one and then transferred to the other for the remainder of
the mixing time before discharging.
Continuous mixers:
These are fed automatically by a continuous weigh-batching system.
Charging the mixer:
There are no general rules on the order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer as this depend on
the properties of the mixer and mix. Usually a small quantity of water is fed first, followed by all
the solids materials. If possible greater part of the water should also be fed during the same time,
the remainder being added after the solids. However, when using very dry mixes in drum mixers it
is necessary to feed the coarse aggregate just after the small initial water feed in order to ensure
that the aggregate surface is sufficiently wetted.
Uniformity of Mixing
In any mixer, it is essential that a sufficient interchange of materials occurs between parts of the
chamber, so that a uniform concrete is produced. The efficiency of the mixer can be measured by
the variability of the samples from the mix. ASTM prescribes samples to be taken from about
points 1/6 and 5/6 of the discharge of the batch and the difference in the properties of the two
samples should not exceed any of the following:
Density of concrete 1 lb/ft³
Air content 1%
Slump 1" when average is less than 4"
1.5" when average is less than 4 to 6"
% of aggregate retained on 4 No. sieve 6%
Compressive strength 7 day, 3 cylinders 7.5%
Mixing time:
It is important to know the minimum mixing time necessary to produce a concrete of uniform
composition, and of reliable strength.
The mixing time or period should be measured from time all the cementing materials and
aggregates are in mixer drum till taking out the concrete.
Mixing time depends on the type and size of mixer, on the speed of rotation, and on the quality of
blending of ingredients during charging of the mixer. Generally, a mixing time of less than 1 to
Lecture Notes
1.25 minutes produces appreciable non-uniformity in composition and a significant lower

strength; mixing beyond 2 minutes causes no significant improvement in these properties.
Table: Recommended minimum mixing times
Capacity of mixer Mixing time

(yd³) (Minutes)
Up to 1 1
2 1.25
3 1.5
4 1.75
5 2
6 2.25
10 3.25
Prolong mixing:
If mixing take place over a long period, evaporation of water from the mix can occur, with a
consequent decrease in workability and an increase in strength. A secondary effect is that of
grinding of the aggregate, particularly if soft; the grading thus becomes finer and the workability
lower. In case of air entrained concrete, prolong mixing reduces the air content.
Ready mixed concrete:

If instead of being batched and mixed on site, concrete is delivered for placing from a central
plant. It is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete. This type of concrete is used
Lecture Notes
extensively abroad as it offers numerous advantages in comparison with other methods of

manufacture:
1. Close quality control of batching which reduces the variability of the desired properties of
hardened concrete.
2. Use on congested sites or in highway construction where there is little space for a mixing
plant and aggregate stockpiles;
3. Use of agitator trucks to ensure care in transportation, thus prevention segregation and
maintaining workability
4. Convenience when small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing is required.
There are two categories of ready-mixed concrete: central-mixed and transit mixed or truck mixed.
In the first category, mixing is done in a central plant and then concrete is transported in an
agitator truck. In the second category, the materials are batched at a central plant but are mixed in
a truck.
Concrete Placing and Compaction of Concrete
The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried out simultaneously.
They are most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of strength, impermeability
and durability of hardened concrete in the actual structure. As for as placing is concerned, the
main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final position so that
segregation is avoided and the concrete can be fully compacted. The aim of good concrete placing
can be stated quite simply.
1. It is to get the concrete into position at a speed, and in a condition, that allow it to be
compacted properly.
2. To achieve proper placing following rules should be kept in mind:
3. The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, not in large heaps or sloping layers.
4. The thickness of the layer should be compatible with the method of vibration so that
entrapped air can be removed from the bottom of each layer.
5. The rate of placing and of compaction should be equal. If you proceed too slowly, the mix
could stiffen so that it is no longer sufficiently workable. On no account should water ever be
added to concrete that is setting. On the other hand, if you go too quickly, you might race ahead of
the compacting gang, making it impossible for them to do their job properly.
Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst the underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is
achieved
Collision between concrete and formwork or reinforcement should be avoided.
For deep sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of location of concrete and minimum
segregation.
You must be able to see that the placing is proceeding correctly, so lighting should be available for
large, deep sections, and thin walls and columns.
Various Methods of Transporting Concrete

Lecture Notes
Ready mix concrete should be transported to the construction job site in a certain time. After
hundred of hundred years of development of the concrete technology, there are a wide variety of
equipment used for transporting concrete, from hand tools to heavy industrial machinery. The
following article will list some methods and analyze their pros and cons for your reference.
Mortar Pan
Mortar pan is be used for small quantities concrete transporting in some countries. This method
exposes greater surface area of concrete for drying conditions. To some extent, this method also
nullifies the segregation, particularly in thick members. And it also may cause greater loss of
water, particularly, in hot weather concreting. Note that mortar pan must be wetted to start with
and must be kept clean.
Wheel Barrow
Wheel barrows is another normal way used for transporting concrete in ground level. This method
is employed for hauling concrete for comparatively longer distance as in the case of concrete road
construction. If concrete is conveyed by wheel barrow over a long distance, on rough ground, it is
likely that the concrete gets segregated due to vibration. In order to avoid this, wheel barrows are
provided with pneumatic wheel.
Crane, Bucket and Rope way
A tower crane and bucket is one of the right method for transporting concrete above ground level.
It is a familiar way in medium and large sites owing to the crane can handle concrete in high rise
construction projects. Apart from it, cranes are fast and versatile to move concrete horizontally as
well as vertically along the boom and allows the placement of concrete at the exact point. Cranes
carry skips or buckets containing concrete. Skips have the discharge door at the bottom, whereas
buckets are tilted for emptying. For a medium scale job the bucket capacity may be 0.5m³. Rope
way buckets of various sizes are adopted for Concrete works in valley, Construction work of the
pier in the river, Dam construction.
Truck Mixer (Transit Mixer) and Dumpers
Truck Mixers and dumpers or ordinary open steel-body tipping lorries can be used for large
concrete works to be placed at ground level particularly with the advantages of travelling to any
part of the work. Compared with the jubilee wagons that require rail tracks, they have much
advantage. Transit mixer is one of the most popular equipment for transporting concrete over a
long distance particularly in Ready Mixed Concrete plant (RMC). In one, mixed concrete is
transported to the site by keeping it agitated all along at a speed varying between 2 to 6
revolutions per minute. In the other category, the concrete is batched at the central batching plant
and mixing is done in the truck mixer either in transit or immediately prior to discharging the
concrete at site. Dumpers are of usually 2 to 3 cubic metre capacity, whereas the capacity of truck
mixer may be 4 cubic metre or more.
Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors is also can be used to transport concrete, but is has a very limited applications
because the tendency of the concrete to segregate on steep inclines, at transfer points or change of
direction, and at the points where the belt passes over the rollers. Belt conveyors can place large
volumes of concrete quickly where access is limited.
Lecture Notes
Chute
Chutes are adopted for transporting concrete from ground to a lower level. The sections of chute
should be made of or lined with metal and the surface should have same slope not flatter than 1
vertical to 2 and a 1/2 horizontal The lay-out is made in such a way that the concrete will slide
evenly in a compact mass without any separation or segregation.
Skip and Hoist
Skip and hoist are often be used as one method for transporting concrete vertically up for
multistorey building construction (3 to 4 floors). At the ground, the skip will be directly fed by the
concrete mixer and then it travels up to the place where concrete is required. At that point, the skip
discharges the concrete automatically or on manual operation.
Pump and Pipeline
Pumping of concrete is universally accepted as one of the main methods of concrete transportation
and placing. Starts with the suction stroke for suck the concrete inside the pipe. It has a piston
which moves forward and backward to have suction and delivery of concrete. Adoption of
pumping is increasing throughout the world as pumps become more reliable and also the concrete
mixes that enable the concrete to be pumped are also better understood. The modern concrete
pump is a sophisticated, reliable and robust machine.
Compaction of Concrete
Lecture Notes
Compaction of Concrete is an operation in which fresh concrete is compacted in forms and make
it encircle reinforcements and other embedded objects such as tubes in the mold.
There are various problems that might arise if compaction of concrete is not carried out properly
such as honeycomb and trapped inside concrete paste. Moreover, poor compaction of concrete
could to permeability problems and therefore steel corrosion and decreasing ultimate capacity of
hardened concrete.
Methods of Compaction of Concrete
Concrete consolidation can be carried out either by hand or machines. There are many factors that
should be considered to choose compaction methods such as reinforcement quantities and spacing,
concrete paste consistency and formwork complexity.
Hand Compaction Method
Reasonably workable and flowable concrete mixtures are consolidated by hand employing a rod.
The bar should adequately reach the bottom of the form work and rode diameter need to compact
concrete between reinforcement spacing and formworks.
The concrete is tamped by the rod tool repeatedly to consolidate it. Mixtures with low slump value
could be consolidated by hand if superplasticizers are added to decrease slump and make the
concrete workable.
Furthermore, tools such as spade is used to provide good surface appearance and hitting formwork
sides make way to repel entrapped air out of the concrete.
Mechanical consolidation is not recommended to use if the mixture is designed to compact by
hand to avoid segregation.
Mechanical Compaction Method
The mechanical consolidation method is capable and suitable for concrete mixtures with great
amount of coarse aggregate content and low water to cement ratio in heavily reinforced structural
elements. Different types of mechanical compaction methods are explained in the following
paragraphs:
1. Shock or drop table
Shock or drop table is used to consolidate extremely stiff low slump concrete in making precast
units.
2. Centrifugation
It is employed for compacting moderate to high slump mixtures in constructing poles, pipes, and
piles.
3. Vibration Method of Concrete Compaction
Vibration method is probably the most extensively used technique for compacting concrete. In this
method, internal friction between aggregate particles is eliminated for a short time and concrete
mixtures behave like liquid and gravitational force will come into effect. This lead to move
entrapped air to move upward and the mixture will settle in the formworks.
Lecture Notes
When the vibration is stopped, the internal friction is immediately developed again. Either number
of vibrations per minute (vpm) or vibrations per second (Hertz) are used to express vibration.
Compaction of concrete with vibrators is divided into the following types:
a) Internal Vibrators
Internal vibrators which sometimes called spude or poker vibrators are usually applied to compact
concrete in beams, walls, columns, and slabs. Not only does vibrators performance is influenced
by concrete workability but also by frequency, amplitude, and head dimensions of vibrators.
Generally, vibrator head diameter is between 2-18 cm and the shape of the head is cylindrical. As
the head diameter of vibrators is increased the effective action area is rose for instance radius
action of vibrators with 4 cm head diameter is 15 cm while 45 cm is the radius action of vibrators
with 8 cm head diameter.
Moreover, it is considerably significant to utilize internal vibrators correctly to achieve the best
compaction. Horizontal movement of vibrators should be avoided to prevent concrete segregation
and lowering head of vibrators to the bottom of considered concrete layer and it should over lab
previous layer by about 15 cm. Compacted concrete layer thickness is about the head length or 50
cm.
Regarding using vibrators for compacting slabs, the vibrator must be kept submerged in concrete
and this can be done by using it horizontally or at specific angle in addition to use 1.5 times the
radius action as the distance to guarantee overlap previously adjacent vibrated layer. Not only does
the vibrator should be held steady but also keep in specific station for 5-15 seconds to obtain
desirable consolidation.
The length of the time that the vibrator employed at the same station is based on concrete
workability, force of the vibrator, and the nature of the element that is being compacted. Adequate
internal vibration is decided by concrete surface modifications for example changes in coarse
aggregate particles, general batch leveling and top surface appearance of thin film of mortar.
In situations where vibrating concrete internally is not possible, it could be beneficial to vibrate
the exposed part of reinforcement because it leads to remove entrapped air and water under
reinforcement and increase the bond between concrete and steel. Figure 2 show internal vibration
operation.
b) External Vibrators
There are two major types of external vibrators which are
Table or surface vibrator, and
Form vibrator.
The Table vibrator is widely suitable for compacting concrete surfaces such as floors and slabs. It
adequately consolidates slabs up to 20 cm thickness; internal vibration is required for higher slab
thicknesses.
The form vibrator is attached to the exterior face of mold or forms properly otherwise energy will
be lost because of improper attachments. Moreover, form vibrator is the proper choice for
Lecture Notes
compacting concrete in thin and heavily congested forms, consolidating stiff mixtures, and
supplementing external vibrators.
Additionally, form vibrators can be advantageous for constructing pipes, masonry units, and other
types of precast concrete. However, it is not recommended to employ form vibration at the top of
vertical forms such as columns because it could cause gaps between concrete the molds as a
consequent of in and out movements, so internal vibration is better to use in this case.
Form vibrators should be spaced properly to make uniform distribution of intensity above the
form. Figure 3 shows form vibrator utilization for compacting fresh concrete.
Results of Improper Vibrations of Concrete
There are various problems and defects that could arise when concrete is not vibrated adequately.
Honeycomb
Sand streaks
Cold joints
Excessive amount of entrapped air voids that most of the times called bug holes.
Subsidence cracking
Placement lines
Concrete Curing
Lecture Notes
Curing of concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the moisture and temperature
conditions of concrete for hydration reaction to normally so that concrete develops hardened
properties over time. The main components which needs to be taken care are moisture, heat and
time during curing process.
Why curing of concrete is required?
Curing of concrete is required for the following reasons:
To prevent the concrete to dry out prematurely due to solar radiation and wind. This prevents
plastic shrinkage of concrete.
It helps to maintain the concrete temperature by allowing the hydration process. Hydration process
requires water to carry on and releases heat.
Curing helps the concrete to harden and bond with internal materials and reinforcement. This
helps to prevent damage to bond between concrete and reinforcement due to vibration and impact.
This helps development of impermeable, crack free and durable concrete.
What is the right time for curing of concrete?
The time to start curing of concrete depends on the evaporation rate of moisture from the concrete.
The evaporation rate is influenced by wind, radiant energy from sunshine, concrete temperature,
climatic conditions, relative humidity.
The evaporation of moisture is driven by the difference in vapor pressure on concrete surface and
the in surrounding air. When the difference is high, evaporation rate is high.
Lecture Notes
ACI 308 – Guide to Curing Concrete suggests three phases of concrete curing. These phases are
shown in figure 1.6 of ACI 308.
The right time of curing of concrete depends on:
Initial Curing – Bleeding of Concrete:
When the concrete is placed and compacted, bleeding of water occurs and rises through the
surface of concrete due to settlement of concrete. The rate and duration of bleeding depends on
many factors including concrete mix properties, depth or thickness of concrete, method of
compaction of concrete etc.
These bleed water starts to evaporate from the surface. When all the bleeding water has
disappeared from the surface, the drying of concrete starts, then initial curing of concrete is
required to minimize the moisture loss and prevent plastic shrinkage cracks to concrete before and
during finishing operations.
The initial curing of concrete can be done by techniques such as fogging or using the evaporation
reducers, or by providing the sunshades and windscreens.
Intermediate curing:
Intermediate curing is done when the concrete surface finishing operations has been carried out
before the final setting of concrete. This happens when the required surface texture of concrete
member is achieved rapidly or when the setting of concrete is delayed.
Final Curing:
When the concrete is finished after the final setting of concrete, the final curing of concrete should
be done. This helps to prevent surface drying of concrete because the loss of moisture from the
concrete surface occurs immediately.
What is the duration of concrete curing?
Curing of concrete for longer duration increases the strength and durability of concrete structural
member. The following figure explains how the compressive strength of concrete increases with
time when it is cured for longer duration.
The curing duration of concrete depends on:
1. The reason for curing i.e. to prevent plastic shrinkage, temperature control, strength and
durability of concrete.
2. The size of concrete structural member
3. The type of concrete grade and rate of hardening of concrete
4. The temperature and moisture conditions of surroundings
5. The exposure conditions of the concrete surface during and after curing
6. The requirement of curing duration as per specification of concrete
7.
The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing duration of concrete must be at least 7
days in case of ordinary Portland Cement, at least 10 days for concrete with mineral admixtures or
blended cements are used. It also recommends that the curing duration should not be less than 10
days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather conditions and 14 days for concrete with mineral
admixtures or blended cement in hot and dry weather.
Lecture Notes
METHODS USED FOR CURING OF CONCRETE

Curing of Concrete
Shading concrete work
Covering concrete surfaces with hessian or gunny bags
Sprinkling of water
Ponding method
Membrane curing
Steam curing
1. SHADING OF CONCRETE WORK
The object of shading concrete work is to prevent the evaporation of water from the surface even
before setting. This is adopted mainly in case of large concrete surfaces such as road slabs. This is
essential in dry weather to protect the concrete from heat, direct sun rays and wind. It also protects
the surface from rain. In cold weather shading helps in preserving the heat of hydration of cement
thereby preventing freezing of concrete under mild frost conditions. Shading may be achieved by
using canvas stretched on frames. This method has a limited application only.
2. COVERING CONCRETE SURFACES WITH HESSIAN OR GUNNY BAGS
This is a widely used method of curing, particularly for structural concrete. Thus exposed surface
of concrete is prevented from drying out by covering it with hessian, canvas or empty cement
bags. The covering over vertical and sloping surfaces should be secured properly. These are
periodically wetted. The interval of wetting will depend upon the rate of evaporation of water. It
should be ensured that the surface of concrete is not allowed to dry even for a short time during
the curing period. Special arrangements for keeping the surface wet must be made at nights and on
holidays.
3. SPRINKLING OF WATER
Sprinkling of water continuously on the concrete surface provides an efficient curing. It is mostly
used for curing floor slabs. The concrete should be allowed to set sufficiently before sprinkling is
started. The spray can be obtained from a perforated plastic box. On small jobs sprinkling of water
may be done by hand. Vertical and sloping surfaces can be kept continuously wet by sprinkling
water on top surfaces and allowing it to run down between the forms and the concrete. For this
method of curing the water requirement is higher.
4. PONDING METHOD
This is the best method of curing. It is suitable for curing horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof
slabs, road and air field pavements. The horizontal top surfaces of beams can also be ponded.
After placing the concrete, its exposed surface is first covered with moist hessian or canvas. After
24 hours, these covers are removed and small ponds of clay or sand are built across and along the
pavements. The area is thus divided into a number of rectangles. The water is filled between the
ponds. The filling of water in these ponds is done twice or thrice a day, depending upon the
Lecture Notes
atmospheric conditions. Though this method is very efficient, the water requirement is very heavy.
Ponds easily break and water flows out. After curing it is difficult to clean the clay.
5. MEMBRANE CURING
The method of curing described above come under the category of moist curing. Another method
of curing is to cover the wetted concrete surface by a layer of water proof material, which is kept
in contact with the concrete surface of seven days. This method of curing is termed as membrane
curing. A membrane will prevent the evaporation of water from the concrete. The membrane can
be either in solid or liquid form. They are also known as sealing compounds. Bituminised water
proof papers, wax emulsions, bitumen emulsions and plastic films are the common types of
membrane used.
Whenever bitumen is applied over the surface for curing, it should be done only after 24 hours
curing with gunny bags. The surface is allowed to dry out so that loose water is not visible and
then the liquid asphalt sprayed throughout. The moisture in the concrete is thus preserved. It is
quite enough for curing.
This method of curing does not need constant supervision. It is adopted with advantage at places
where water is not available in sufficient quantity for wet curing. This method of curing is not
efficient as compared with wet curing because rate of hydration is less. Moreover the strength of
concrete cured by any membrane is less than the concrete which is moist cured. When membrane
is damaged the curing is badly affected.
6. STEAM CURING
Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes adopted. With these methods of curing, the
strength development of concrete is very rapid.
These methods can best be used in pre cast concrete work. In steam curing the temperature of
steam should be restricted to a maximum of 750C as in the absence of proper humidity (about
90%) the concrete may dry too soon. In case of hot water curing, temperature may be raised to any
limit, ay 1000C.
At this temperature, the development of strength is about 70% of 28 days strength after 4 to 5
hours. In both cases, the temperature should be fully controlled to avoid non-uniformity. The
concrete should be prevented from rapid drying and cooling which would form cracks.
Lecture Notes
Durability of Concrete
The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without deterioration
for a long period of years is known as durability.
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack and
abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the duration or
life span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require different degrees of durability
depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to
tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.
Concrete will remain durable if:
 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert

 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides, sulphates
and silt.
Factors affecting durability of concrete
Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors
Cement content
Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If cement is
reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to inadequate compaction.
However, if water is added to improve workability, water / cement ratio increases and resulting in
highly permeable material.
Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually it is
being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of the
steelwork
Curing
It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to ensure
hydration process occur completely
Lecture Notes
Cover
Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes
Permeability
It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher permeability
is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient cement, proper
compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low permeability concrete
Types of Durability
There are many types but the major ones are:
1. Physical durability of concrete

2. Chemical durability of concrete
Physical Durability
Physical durability is against the following actions
1. Freezing and thawing action

2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
Chemical Durability
Chemical durability is against the following actions
1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
5. Corrosion of reinforcement
Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete
1. External Causes:
1. Extreme Weathering Conditions
2. Extreme Temperature
3. Extreme Humidity
4. Abrasion
5. Electrolytic Action
6. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases
2. Internal Causes
a) Physical
 Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement paste
Lecture Notes
 Frost Action
b) Chemical
 Alkali Aggregate Reactions
i. Alkali Silica Reaction
ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction
iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction
 Corrosion of Steel
Lecture Notes
UNIT-IV
Concrete Mix Design

Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability as
economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of
concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and
the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and
compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made up
of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact
that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix
as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking
in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may
cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a minimum
mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the structure. This
depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality control adds to the
cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic compromise, and depends on
the size and type of job. The cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix
of inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction
with available equipment.
Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are :
a ) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment
available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability for
the particular site conditions
Lecture Notes
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass
concrete.
Types of Mixes
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of
strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal
concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25,
M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25
correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2)
respectively.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix proportions
are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content can be laid
down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific materials in
mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the production of
concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not
serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed
performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the
codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very
small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm 2. No control testing is
necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific age,
Lecture Notes
usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting
the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of
compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely
proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section to be
concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For the narrow
and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a
high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This
also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the compacting
equipment available at the site.
3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when the
high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital,
the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a
particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in
maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the
decrease in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be as
large as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and water-
cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not
desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired workability
and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the
uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions.
6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The variation
in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and lack of control
of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference between the
mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The factor
controlling this difference is termed as quality control.
Mix Proportion designations
Lecture Notes
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms
of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions
1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one
part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are
either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass
Factors to be considered for mix design
1. The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.
2. The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of
concrete.
3. Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible
within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
4. The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
5. The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size
and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing and compaction.
Lecture Notes
Concrete Mix Design
Data Required for Concrete Mix Design

(i) Concrete Mix Design Stipulation
(a) Characteristic compressive strength required in the field at 28 days grade designation — M 25
(b) Nominal maximum size of aggregate — 20 mm
(c) Shape of CA — Angular
(d) Degree of workability required at site — 50-75 mm (slump)
(e) Degree of quality control available at site — As per IS:456
(f) Type of exposure the structure will be subjected to (as defined in IS: 456) — Mild
(g) Type of cement: PSC conforming IS:455
(h) Method of concrete placing: pump able concrete
(ii) Test data of material (to be determined in the laboratory)

(a) Specific gravity of cement — 3.15
(b) Specific gravity of FA — 2.64
(c) Specific gravity of CA — 2.84
(d) Aggregate are assumed to be in saturated surface dry condition.
(e) Fine aggregates confirm to Zone II of IS – 383
Procedure for Concrete Mix Design of M25 Concrete

Step 1 — Determination Of Target Strength
Himsworth constant for 5% risk factor is 1.65. In this case standard deviation is taken from IS:456
against M 20 is 4.0.
ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S

= 25 + 1.65 x 4.0 = 31.6 N/mm2
Where,
Lecture Notes
S = standard deviation in N/mm2 = 4 (as per table -1 of IS 10262- 2009)

Step 2 — Selection of water / cement ratio:-
From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)
Maximum water-cement ratio for Mild exposure condition = 0.55
Based on experience, adopt water-cement ratio as 0.5.
0.5<0.55, hence OK.
Step 3 — Selection of Water Content

From Table 2 of IS 10262- 2009,
Maximum water content = 186 Kg (for Nominal maximum size of aggregate — 20 mm)
Table for Correction in water content

Values as per Values as per Correction
Parameters Standard reference Present Departure in Water
condition Problem Content
(+3/25) x 25
Slump 25-50 mm 50-75 25
= +3
Shape of
Angular Angular Nil –
Aggregate
Total +3
Estimated water content = 186+ (3/100) x 186 = 191.6 kg /m3
Step 4 — Selection of Cement Content
Water-cement ratio = 0.5
Corrected water content = 191.6 kg /m3

Cement content =
From Table 5 of IS 456,
Minimum cement Content for mild exposure condition = 300 kg/m3

383.2 kg/m3 > 300 kg/m3, hence, OK.
This value is to be checked for durability requirement from IS: 456.
In the present example against mild exposure and for the case of reinforced concrete the minimum
cement content is 300 kg/m3 which is less than 383.2 kg/m3. Hence cement content adopted =
383.2 kg/m3.
As per clause 8.2.4.2 of IS: 456
Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3.

Lecture Notes
Step 5: Estimation of Coarse Aggregate proportion:-

From Table 3 of IS 10262- 2009,
For Nominal maximum size of aggregate = 20 mm,
Zone of fine aggregate = Zone II
And For w/c = 0.5
Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.62
Table for correction in estimation of coarse aggregate proportion

Values as
Values as Correction
per
per in Coarse
Parameter Standard Departure Remarks
present Aggregate
reference
problem proportion
condition
See Note
W/c 0.5 0.5 Nil –
1
pump able See Note

Workability – – -10%
concrete 2
Total -10%
Note 1: For every ±0.05 change in w/c, the coarse aggregate proportion is to be changed by 0.01.
If the w/c is less than 0.5 (standard value), volume of coarse aggregate is required to be increased
to reduce the fine aggregate content. If the w/c is more than 0.5, volume of coarse aggregate is to
be reduced to increase the fine aggregate content. If coarse aggregate is not angular, volume of
coarse aggregate may be required to be increased suitably, based on experience.
Note 2: For pump able concrete or congested reinforcement the coarse aggregate proportion may
be reduced up to 10%.
Hence,
Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.62 x 90% = 0.558
Volume of fine aggregate = 1 – 0.558 = 0.442
Step 6: Estimation of the mix ingredients

a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3
b) Volume of cement = (Mass of cement / Specific gravity of cement) x (1/100)
= (383.2/3.15) x (1/1000) = 0.122 m3

c) Volume of water = (Mass of water / Specific gravity of water) x (1/1000)
= (191.6/1) x (1/1000) = 0.1916 m3

Lecture Notes
d) Volume of total aggregates = a – (b + c ) = 1 – (0.122 + 0.1916) = 0.6864 m3

e) Mass of coarse aggregates = 0.6864 x 0.558 x 2.84 x 1000 = 1087.75 kg/m3
f) Mass of fine aggregates = 0.6864 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000 = 800.94 kg/m3
Concrete Mix proportions for Trial Mix 1
Cement = 383.2 kg/m3
Water = 191.6 kg/m3
Fine aggregates = 800.94 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1087.75 kg/m3
W/c = 0.5
For trial -1 casting of concrete in lab, to check its properties.
It will satisfy durability & economy.
For casting trial -1, mass of ingredients required will be calculated for 4 no’s cube assuming 25%
wastage.
Volume of concrete required for 4 cubes = 4 x (0.153 x1.25) = 0.016878 m3

Cement = (383.2 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.47 kg
Water = (191.6 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.23 kg
Coarse aggregate = (1087.75 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =18.36 kg
Fine aggregates = (800.94 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 13.52 kg
Step 7: Correction due to absorbing / moist aggregate:-
Since the aggregate is saturated surface dry condition hence no correction is required.
Step 8: Concrete Trial Mixes:-

Concrete Trial Mix 1:
The mix proportion as calculated in Step 6 forms trial mix1. With this proportion, concrete is
manufactured and tested for fresh concrete properties requirement i.e. workability, bleeding and
finishing qualities.
In this case,
Slump value = 25 mm
Compaction Factor = 0.844
So, from slump test we can say,
Mix is cohesive, workable and had a true slump of about 25 mm and it is free from segregation
and bleeding.
Desired slump = 50-75 mm
So modifications are needed in trial mix 1 to arrive at the desired workability.

Lecture Notes

To increase the workability from 25 mm to 50-75 mm an increase in water content by +3% is to
be made.
The corrected water content = 191.6 x 1.03 = 197.4 kg.
As mentioned earlier to adjust fresh concrete properties the water cement ratio will not be
changed. Hence
Cement Content = (197.4/0.5) = 394.8 kg/m3

Which also satisfies durability requirement.
Volume of all in aggregate = 1 – [{394.8/(3.15×1000)} + {197.4/(1 x 1000)}] = 0.6773 m3

Mass of coarse aggregate = 0.6773 x 0.558 x 2.84 x 1000 = 1073.33 kg/m3
Mass of fine aggregate = 0.6773 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000 = 790.3 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Proportions for Trial Mix 2
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
Fine aggregate =790.3 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1073.33 kg/m3
wastage.

Cement = (384.8 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.66 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
In this case,
Slump value = 60 mm
Mix is very cohesive, workable and had a true slump of about 60 mm.
It virtually flowed during vibration but did not exhibit any segregation and bleeding.
So , it has achieved desired workability by satisfying the requirement of 50-75 mm slump value .
Now , we need to go for trial mix-3 .

Lecture Notes

In case of trial mix 3 water cement ratio is varied by +10% keeping water content constant. In the
present example water cement ratio is raised to 0.55 from 0.5.
An increase of 0.05 in the w/c will entail a reduction in the coarse aggregate fraction by 0.01.
Hence the coarse aggregate as percentage of total aggregate = 0.558 – 0.01 = 0.548
W/c = 0.55
Water content will be kept constant.
Cement content = (197.4/0.55) = 358.9 kg/m3

Hence, volume of all in aggregate
= 1 – [{(358.9/(3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)] =0.688 m3

Mass of fine aggregate = 0.688 x 0.452 x 2.64 x 1000 = 821 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Proportions of Trial Mix 3
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
FA = 821 kg/m3
CA = 1070.75 kg/m3
wastage.

Cement = (358.9 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.06 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
Fine aggregates = (821 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 13.85 kg
In this case,
Slump value = 75 mm
Mix is stable, cohesive, and workable and had a true slump of about 75 mm.
So , it has achieved desired workability by satisfying the requirement of 50-75 mm slump value .
Lecture Notes
Now , we need to go for trial mix-4.

In this case water / cement ratio is decreased by 10% keeping water content constant.
W/c = 0.45
A reduction of 0.05 in w/c will entail and increase of coarse aggregate fraction by 0.01.
Coarse aggregate fraction = 0.558 +.01 =.568
W/c = 0.45 and water content = 197.4 kg/m3

Cement content = (197.4/0.45) = 438.7 kg/m3
Volume of all in aggregate
= 1 – [{438.7/(3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)] = 0.664 m3

Mass of fine aggregate = 0.664 x 0.432 x 2.64 x 1000 = 757.28 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Proportions of Trial Mix 4
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
FA = 757.28 kg/m3
CA = 1071.11 kg/m3
wastage.

Cement = (438.7 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 7.4 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
A local correction due to moisture condition of aggregate is again applied on this proportions.
With corrected proportions three concrete cubes are cast and tested for 28 days compressive
strength.
A summary of all the trial mixes is given in the following Table.

Lecture Notes
Concrete admixtures
Concrete admixtures are used to enhance the properties of concrete for applications in concrete
works with special requirements.
Concrete admixtures are used to modify the properties of concrete to achieve desired workability
in case of low water cement ratio, and to enhance setting time of concrete for long distance
transportation of concrete.
So, it is of much importance for a civil site engineer to know about the properties of admixtures
for better selection and application in concrete works.
Definition of Concrete Admixtures

As per BIS (IS – 9103: 1999) Page No.1, Concrete Admixture is defined as a material other than
water, aggregates and hydraulic cement and additives like Pozzolana or slag and fiber
reinforcement, used as on ingredient of concrete or mortar and added to the batch immediately
before or during its mixing to modify one or more of the properties of concrete in the plastic or
hardened state.
Reasons for Using Admixtures (ACI Committee Report Page – 298)

Admixtures are used to modify the properties of concrete or mortar to make them more suitable
for the work at hand or for economy or for such other purposes as saving energy.
Some of the important purposes for which admixtures are used are:
1. To modify properties of fresh concrete, mortar and grout so as to:

2. Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease water content at the same
workability.
3. Retard or accelerate time of initial setting.
4. Reduce or prevent settlement.
5. Modify the rate or capacity for bleedings.
6. Reduce segregation.
7. Improve pumpability.
8. Reduce the rate of slump loss.
Lecture Notes
To modify the properties of hardened concrete, mortar and grout so as to:
1. Retard or reduce heat evaluation during early hardening.

2. Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages.
3. Increase strength (compressive, tensile or flexural).
4. Increase durability or resistance to severe condition of exposure.
5. Decrease permeability of concrete.
6. Control expansion caused by the reaction of alkalies with certain aggregate constituents.
7. Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement.
8. Increase bond between existing and new concrete.
9. Improve impact resistance and abrasion resistance.
10. Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal.
11. Produce colored concrete or mortar
When to Use Concrete Admixtures
1. When properties cannot be made by varying the composition of basic material.

2. To produce desired effects more economically.
3. Unlikely to make a poor concrete better.
4. Not a substitute for good concrete practice.
5. Required dose must be carefully determined and administered
6. How to Use Concrete Admixtures
7. Check job specification
8. Use the correct admixture
9. Never use one from an unmarked container.
10. Keep containers closed to avoid accidental contamination.
11. Add the correct dosage.
12. Avoid adding ‘a little bit extra
13. Use a dispenser
14. Wash thoroughly at the end the day
15. Best if added to the mixing water
16. Manufacturer’s recommended dosage is usually adequate
17. Trial mixes are important to determine most effective dosage
Types of Concrete Admixtures
Admixtures are classified according to the Indian Standard (IS 9103: 1999) are as follows:
Lecture Notes
a) Accelerating admixtures
b) Retarding admixtures
c) Water-reducing admixtures
d) Air-entraining admixtures
e) Super plasticizing admixtures
Classification according to American Concrete Institute Committee report.
a) Air-entraining admixtures
b) Accelerating admixtures
c) Water reducing and set controlling admixtures
d) Admixtures for flowing concrete
e) Miscellaneous admixtures
Classification of admixtures according to the book of “Concrete Admixtures: Use and

Applications” edited by M. R. Rixom are given in the forward pages.
Lecture Notes
Air Entraining Agent Concrete Admixtures
These are generally used to improve workability, ease of placing, increased durability, better
resistance to frost action and reduction in bleeding.
The common Air-Entraining agents are natural wood resins, neutralized vinsol resins,
polyethelene oxide polymers and sulphonated compounds.
Mechanism of Air Entraining Concrete Admixtures

These are anionic, because the hydrocarbon structures contain negatively charged hydrophilic
groups, such as COO, SO3 and OSO so that large anions are released in water. Conversely, if the
hydrocarbon ion is positively charged, the compound is cation active or cationic.
In other words, anionic surface active agents produce bubbles that are negatively charged, cationic
charged cause bubbles to be positively charged, surface active agents of all classes can cause air
entrainment in concrete, but their efficiency and characteristics of air-void system vary widely.
Air entraining Admixtures have following properties:

1. These are foaming agents, gas producing chemicals. It introduces millions of tiny, stable
bubbles of uniform size that are uniformly distributed throughout the mix (usually about 5%
of the volume).
2. Improves properties of fresh concrete such as workability, cohesion and reduces segregation
and bleeding.
3. Improves properties of hardened concrete – For every 1% of air there is a 4% loss in
strength which is minimized by the reduction in water content. It improves durability of
hardened concrete.
Accelerating Admixtures for Concrete
Accelerating admixtures are used for quicker setting times of concrete. It provides higher early
strength development in freshly cast concrete.
Main uses of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures
1. These admixtures are suitable for concreting in winter conditions

2. During any emergency repair work
3. In case of early removal of formwork
4. Disadvantages of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures
Lecture Notes
5. It has increased drying shrinkage

6. It offers reduced resistance to sulphate attack
7. CaCl2 high risk of corrosion of steel – not permitted in reinforced concrete
8. It is more expensive and less effective
Water Reducing Admixtures
Chemical Types for Water Reducing Admixtures

a) Calcium or sodium salt of lignosulfonic acid
b) Poly carboxylic acid
Mode of Action
The principal role on mechanism of water reductions and set retardation of admixtures are usually
composed of long-chain organic molecules and that are hydrophobic (not wetting) at one end and
hydrophilic (readily wet) at the other.
Such molecules tend to become concentrated and form a film at the interface between two
immiscible phases such as cement and water, and alter the physio-chemical forces acting at this
interface.
The mechanism by which water reducing admixture operate is to deflocculated or to disperse the
cement agglomerates into primary particles or atleast into much smaller fragments.
This deflocculating is believing to be a physio chemical effect whereby the admixture is first of all
adsorbed on to the surface of the hydrating cement, forming a hydration “sheath”, reduces the
antiparticle separated from one another.
The presence of water reducing admixture in a fresh concrete results in:

(i) a reduction of the interfacial tension.
(ii) an increase in the electro kinetic potentials and
(iii) protection sheath of water dipoles around each particle i.e. mobility of fresh mix becomes
greater, partly because of reduction in inter-particle forces and partly because of water freed from
the restraining influence of the highly flocculated system which is now available to lubricate the
mixture. Hence less water is required to achieve given consistency.
Why Water Reducing Admixtures are used?

a) Concrete having greater workability be made without the need for more water and so strength
losses are not encountered
Lecture Notes
b) By maintaining some workability, but at a lower water content, concrete strengths may be
increased without the need for further cement addition
c) While maintaining the same w/c ratio and workability concrete can be made to a given strength
as in the reference concrete at lower cement content.
Effect on durability
The straight addition of admixtures of this type does not came any increase in permeability and
indeed where the admixture is used to reduce the w/c, then permeability is considerably reduced.
Effect on shrinkage
Admixture of this type when used as workability aids on water reducers do not adversely effect
the shrinkage.
Effect on creep
Materials of this type of admixture have no deleterious effect on the creep of concrete.
Detrimental effect
a) While using water reducing agent. Care must be taken in controlling the air content in the mix.
Most water-reducing agent entrain air due to their surfactant properties.
b) At high dosages of lignosulphonate material, retardation of the mix occurs.
Applications of Water Reducing Concrete Admixtures
The application of the type of admixtures are as follows —
a) When concrete pours are restricted due to either congested reinforcement or this sections.
b) When harsh mixes are experienced such as those produced with aggregates (crushed). Then
considerable improvement in the plastic properties of concrete can be obtained.
c) When required strengths are difficult to obtain within specified maximum cement content and
where early lifting strengths are required.
d) By addition of this admixture in concrete cement economics of about 10% can be obtained.
Lecture Notes
Retarding Concrete Admixtures
The function of retarding concrete admixture is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste
in concrete. These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance in transit
mixers and helpful in placing the concrete at high temperatures, specially used as grouting
admixture and water reducers results in increase of strength and durability.
Chemical type for Retarding Concrete Admixture

a) Unrefined lignosulphonates containing sugar, which of course the component responsible for
retardation.
b) Hydroxyl carboxylic acid and their salts
c) Carbohydrates including sugar
d) Soluble zinc
e) Soluble borates etc.
Mode of action
It is thought that retarding admixtures are absorbed on to the C3A phase in cement forming a film
around the cement grains and presenting or reducing the reaction with water. After a while thus
film breaks down and normal hydration proceeds. This a simple mixture and there is a reason to
believe that retards also interact with C3S since retardation can be extended to a period of many
days.
Why Retarding Concrete Admixtures are used?
To delay in the setting time of concrete without adversely effecting the subsequent strength
development.
Advantage of Retarding Concrete Admixture

a) The hydroxyl carboxylic acid type admixture normally produces concrete having a slightly
lower aim content them that of a control mix.
b) Materials of this class (lignosulphonate containing sugar and derivatives of hydroxyl carboxylic
acid) in some cases have a much higher dispersing effect and hence water reducing capacity.
c) Durability increases.
Lecture Notes
Detrimental effect
a) When lignosulphonate based material used, then the air content might be 0.2 to 0.3% higher
unless materials of the tributyle phosphate type are added.
b) As the water content increases, so there is a tendency for drying shrinkage.
Applications of Retarding Concrete Admixture

Retarding admixtures are used
a) Where long transportation of ready mixed concrete is required then premature setting can be
usefully avoided by this type admixture.
b) When concrete is being placed or transported under conditions of high ambient temperature.
c) In case of large concrete pours
d) Concrete construction involving sliding formwork

Lecture Notes
Super Plasticizers or High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures in Concrete
These are the second generation admixture and also called as Superplasticizers. These are
synthetic chemical products made from organic sulphonates of type RSO3, where R is complex
organic group of higher molecular weight produced under carefully controlled condition.
The commonly used superplasticizer are as follows:

i) Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (S M F C)
ii) ii) Sulphonated napthalene formaldehyde condensate (S N F C)
iii) iii) Modified ligno-sulphonates and other sulphonic esters, acids etc.,
Chemical type
a) formaldehyde derivatives such as melamine formaldehyde and napthalene sulphonate
formaldehyde.
Mode of action of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

This admixture acts as the same way as that of a water reducing admixture acts. It disperses the
cement agglomerates when cement is suspended in water and adsorbed on to the surface of
cement, causing them mutually repulsive as a result of the anionic nature of super plasticizers.
Why Super Plasticizer Admixtures are used?

a) At a given w/c ratio, this admixture increases the workability, typically by raising the slump
from 75 mm to 200 mm.
b) The second use of this admixtures is in the production of concrete of normal workability but
with an extreme high strength (super plasticizer can reduce the water content for a given
workability by 25 – 35 percent compared with half that value in the case of conventional water
reducing admixtures).
Advantages of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

a) The concrete using this admixture can be placed with little or no compaction and is not subject
to excessive bleeding or segregation.
b) They can be used as high dosages became they do not markedly change the surface tension of water.
c) It does not significantly affect the setting of concrete except that when used the cements having
a very low C3A content.
Lecture Notes
d) They do not influence shrinkage, creep modulus of elasticity or resistance to freeing to thawing.
Disadvantage
The only real disadvantage of superplasticizer is their relatively high cost.
Applications of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

a) In very heavily reinforced sections, in inaccessible areas in floor or road slabs. b) Where very
rapid placing is desired.
Mineral Admixtures for Concrete

Mineral admixtures are finely divided materials which are added to the concrete in relatively large
amounts, usually of the order of 20 to 100 percent by weight of Portland cement.
Source of Mineral Admixtures

a) Raw or calcined natural minerals
b) Industrial by products
Reasons for using mineral admixtures

a) In recent years’ considerable efforts have been made by the cement industry world wide to
reduce energy consumption in the manufacture of Portland cement. Therefore, a partial
replacement of Portland cement by mineral admixtures which can be of the order of 50 – 60% by
weight of total cementitious material, represents considerable energy savings.
b) The ability of cement and concrete industries to consume mithions of tons of industrial
byproducts containing toxic metal would qualify these industries to be classified as
environmentally friendly.
c) Since natural Pozzolana and industrial by products are generally available substantially lower
costs than Portland cement, the exploitation of the Pozzolanic and cementitious properties of
mineral admixtures are used as a partial replacement of cement can lead to a considerable
economic benefit.
d) Possible technological benefits from the use of mineral admixtures in concrete include
entrancement of impermeability and chemical durability, improved resistance to thermal cracking
and increase in ultimate strength.
Classification of Mineral Admixture

Mineral admixtures may be classified as follows —
a) Pozzolanic — Siliceon or siliceons and admixtures material which itself possesses little or no
cementitious value but is the presence of moisture chemically react with CalOH2 at ordinary
temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
b) Pozzolanic & Cementitious — The materials which have some cementitious properties in itself.
Lecture Notes
ASIM specification C618 recognizes the following three classes of mineral admixtures.
a) Class N — Raw or calcined natural pozzolanic such as diatomaceous earths, clay and shales,
tuffs and volcanic ashes.
b) Class F — Fly ash produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal.
c) Class C — Ash normally produced from lignite or sub-bituminous coal which may contain
analytical CaO higher than 10%.
Silica Fume as Concrete Admixture

Although the use of silica fume (SF) in concrete has increased significantly in the past few years,
its beneficial properties were not well realized until comprehensive research was undertaken in the
late 70’s and early 80’s at the Norwegian Ins. of technology to study the influence of SF on
concrete properties.
Production of Silica Fume

Silicon, ferrosilicon or other alloys are produced in so-called “submerged are electric furnaces”.
There are two types of electric furnaces one is with heat recovery system and the other is without
heat recovery system.
Types of Alloys Produced in Submerged Arc Electric Furnaces

a) Ferrosilicon of various Si contents
– FeSi – 50% with a 43 to 50% Si content
b) Calcium silicon
c) Ferrochromium Silicon
d) Silicomanganese
Specific Gravity and Specific Surface Area of SF

The specific gravity of SF is generally equal to that of amorphous silica which is about 2.20.
However, depending on its chemical composition, the specific gravity of SF particle can be as
high as 2.40 and 2.55, as in the case of FeGSi.
The specific surface area of SF is measured by nitrogen absorption is given below.
Calculated Surface Measured by Nitrogen Mean Diameter

SF
Area (m2/kg) Adsorption (mm)
Lecture Notes
Si 20000 18500 0.18
FeCrSi 16000 – 0.18
FeSi –
15000 – 0.21
50%
FeSi –
13000 15000 0.26
75%
However, regardless of the differences in chemical composition, color and carbon content, all
types of SF share a certain number of common, yet important physio chemical characteristics,
which make them effective supplementary cementitious materials to cement concrete. these
properties are as follows —
a) SF originates from the condensed SiO vapors and generally has a high content of silica of 35 to
98%
b) SF is an amorphous material
c) SF is composed mostly of fine spheres with a mean diameter of 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
Filler and Pozzolanic effects of Silica Fume

The unique characteristics of SF that make it suitable for use as supplementary cementitious
materials are its fineness, highly amorphous in nature and elevated content of SiO2.
The small SF spheres act as fillers since they occupy some of the space between the relatively
coarser cement grains which can be otherwise occupied by water. This results also in a denser
matrix with a better gradation of fine particles.
Bache stated that in a super plasticized, low w/c ratio concrete, small SF spheres can displace
water entrapped between the flocculated cement grains, thus increasing the amount of free water
in the paste which enhances fluidity.
Several researchers have studied the pozzolanic properties of SF. The resulting reactions between
SF and Ca(OH)2 increases the volume of CSH and reduces the total volume of capillary pores in
the cement paste. The pozzolanic reactions of SF with Ca(OH)2 reduces the amount of Portlandite
in the hydrate cement paste.
Mehta explained that the absence of large Portlandite crystals in a SF mixture can be due to the
fact that each SF particles can act as a “nucleation site” for precipitation of Ca(OH)2. As a result,
numerous small crystals of Ca(OH)2 can form rather than a few large ones.
This absence of large and week crystals of Portlandite enhance the mechanical properties of
concrete.
The beneficial action of SF has also been attributed to the reduction of the porosity of the
transition zone between the cement paste and aggregate which increases the strength and
Lecture Notes
impermeability of the concrete. In or conventional concrete, the transition zone can have large and
oriented Portlandite crystals which form weak zones in the concrete.
The thickness of the transition zone can be drastically produced by adding SF to the concrete since
SF reduces bleeding and the amount of water accumulation under aggregate. As a result, it
decreases the porosity of the transition zone and it also reduces the concentration of oriented
Ca(OH)2 crystals.
Selection of Concrete Admixtures:

Concrete admixtures shall be selected carefully as per the specifications and shall be used as
recommended by the manufacturer or by lab testing report. The quantity of admixtures to be used
for specific application of admixtures are recommended by the manufacturers.
For use in large construction projects, the quantity of the admixture to be used shall be obtained
from tests reports for concrete mixed with admixtures at various percentage admixtures use. These
tests are conducted to understand the behaviour of admixtures on the desired quality and strength
of concrete at different quantity of admixtures used. Thus, the optimum quantity of admixtures can
be selected for specific application based on results.
The selection of specific admixtures for use in concrete to alter properties of concrete should be
selected carefully as per requirement of concrete works. Concrete admixtures should be used
judiciously according to specification and method of application to avoid adverse effect on
concrete properties at fresh and hardened state.
After selecting the admixtures product, one should carefully choose the supplier with quality
product, timely service and at competitive price. The admixture supplier should be with good
history and should possess the staff with efficient and professional experience to guide on
effective application/use of admixture in right way.
Concrete admixtures should be accepted with test certificate, manufacturing date and its chemical
composition, should comply specifications given by the authorities
Lecture Notes
UNIT-5
FORMWORK (SHUTTERING)
Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork construction depends
on formwork material and type of structural element.
Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab
formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc.
The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of
the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic
expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork
can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary
forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork
is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the surface of
wood mitigates these defects.
1. A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

2. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
3. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
4. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
5. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences
without damage to the concrete.
6. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for
reuse.
7. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane
surface.
8. It should be as light as possible.
Lecture Notes
9. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
10. It should rest on firm base.
Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms,
floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the
material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the
formwork.
Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fiberglass used
separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-use of
the same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made
of precast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or members
involving curved surfaces.
Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1. well seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on all
faces which come in contact with concrete.
Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:

Lecture Notes
Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side 25 mm to 40mm thick

and beam bottom
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes.
The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and it may
even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and
dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose,
number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
4. Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are
largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is
possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.
1. Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

2. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their
reuses are more in number.
3. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
4. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces
need no further treatment.
5. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
6. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.
Construction of Concrete formwork:
This normally involves the following operations:
1. Propping and centring

2. Shuttering
Lecture Notes
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment
Order and Method of Removing Formwork:
The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed
first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be
removed in the end.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at
the time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order
to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
Lecture Notes
Formwork for different types of members in civil engineering construction.
Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor
Lecture Notes
Figure 1(b): Details at section (A) shown in above figure
Figure 2(a): Elevation

Lecture Notes
Figure 2(b): Details of timber formwork for circular RCC column
Figure 3(a): 150 3D View

Lecture Notes
Figure 3(b): Details of timber formwork for square or rectangular RCC column
Figure 4: Sectional plan showing details of timber formwork for an octagonal column
Figure 5: Details of formwork for stair

Lecture Notes
Figure 6: Timber formwork for RCC wall
Table: Period of Removal of Formwork
S. No. Description of structural member Time Period
1 Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams 1 to 2 days
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
Removal of props to slabs
4 (a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days

Lecture Notes
Removal of props to beams and arches
5 (a) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days
(b) spanning over 6 m 21 days
Slipform construction
Slip form construction is a method for building large towers or bridges from concrete. The name
refers to the moving form the concrete is poured into, which moves along the project as the
previously poured concrete hardens behind it. The technique has also been applied to road
construction.
The technique was in use by the early 20th century for building silos and grain elevators.
Vertical slipform relies on the quick-setting properties of concrete requiring a balance between

early strength gain and workability. Concrete needs to be workable enough to be placed to the
formwork and strong enough to develop early strength so that the form can slip upwards without
any disturbance to the freshly placed concrete.
A notable use of the method was the Skylon Tower in Niagara Falls, Ontario, which was
completed in 1965. The technique was soon utilized to build the Inco Superstack in Sudbury,
Ontario and the CN Tower in Toronto. It is the most common method for construction of tall
buildings in Australia.
From foundation to rooftop of even the very tallest projects, with the system’s hydraulic jacks,
installing steel reinforcement and pouring concrete become much easier and faster, plus can be
more efficiently controlled to assure the highest quality finished cement structure.
Lecture Notes
SLIPFORM technology virtually eliminates unnecessary waste and hazards, making this
construction system even more efficient and economical.
1. SLIPFORM saves investment

2. SLIPFORM saves time
3. SLIPFORM saves labor
4. SLIPFORM is safety
Concrete Slipform Construction Advantages
Height
This technology becomes very competitive starting at about 60 ft of height and continues to
improve with increasing height thereafter.
Early Assembly
The slipform setup is very compact and can be pre-assembled ahead of time. Once the foundation
is ready, the slipform can quickly be placed on the foundation and construction can start almost
immediately.
Monolithic Construction
No cold-joints are necessary. Construction can be continuous and monolithic, resulting in

maximum durability and a long service life for your structure.
Speed of Construction
Speeds of between 7 ft and 30 ft per 24 hours are possible. Many times, this speed allows reuse of
formwork on repetitive elements without impacting the overall schedule, thus reducing your total
formwork cost.
No Form Ties
No ties are required because the limited concrete pressure is taken by the slipform yoke directly.
Without ties, there are also no form holes to fill, which reduces labor costs, improves appearance
and makes for a water-tight structure. This is particularly important for offshore structures such as
gravity oil and gas platforms.
No Rebar Bolsters
Unlike in standard wall construction with panel forms, slipforming does not require lost rebar
bolsters in every pour to control the rebar cover. In slipform construction, sliding guides are
Lecture Notes
mounted on top of the slipform. These guides push the rebar into position and accurately control
the rebar cover as the slipform moves upwards.
Continuous Process
Slipforming is a continuous extrusion process. There is no need to set and strip forms every few
feet. You do not need to tie up a crane as for handling conventional formwork.
Quality Finish
Slipforming provides a superior concrete finish with no form fins to clean up and without
horizontal joints. A sponge finish and other surface treatments are easy to apply from the second
work platform suspended from the slipform assembly.
Sponge finish being applied from the lower work platform, creating a smooth and uniform
appearance.
Safety
The slipform setup provides a safe and protected work environment for your crew. Relatively little
climbing is required, the work area is compact and unchanging and weather protection can easily
be added to the formwork setup. Enclosed spaces can be heated during the cold weather periods.
Also, the slipform is never released from the structure during climbing, as is commonly done with
other form systems. It only climbs in small increments and is continuously connected to the
structure at multiple points, making it a very safe system.
Flexibility
A slipform is of low overall height and very compact. That makes it is easier to handle and modify
for changing concrete cross-sections. Also, the extension past the hardened concrete line is very
short, so very little wind force has to be considered in the formwork design.
Many times, a slipform setup does not need a tower crane to service the work point, which is a
great cost savings. A winch connected to the slipform can be used to bring up material on the
inside of the shaft, where it is protected from the wind. A tower crane may have to shut down
during high winds, whereas the winch can keep going.
Easy To Stop
The slipform operation can be stopped and resumed at will, to suit the contractor’s schedule.
Slipform operations can be suspended for the weekend or during parts of the day as dictated by
external factors. This is done by climbing another 18 in. or so after the last concrete has been
poured. This gives the concrete time to set and helps to break the form adhesion to the fresh
concrete.
Lecture Notes
Standard Concrete Mix

No special concrete is needed for a typical slipform project. For certain offshore structures,
advanced concrete mixes have been developed to improve the performance of the structure in the
ocean environment. However, these types of structures are rare and the vast majority of buildings
and towers can be slipformed with ordinary concrete mixes.
Jump Work
Jump work, also known as climbing form work, is suited to a wider range of construction projects
and is far more commonly seen than slipform construction.
Work progresses in stages, (in a climbing fashion) with the building completed layer by layer from
preformed concrete units. In rare cases there may be direct pour on site, but always in small
modular sections and never in a continuous pour as is the case with slipform construction.
While work can continue around the clock, it doesn't need to. Therefore, most construction sites,
unless they are on a tight deadline, don't operate outside regular working hours. Progress may then
be slower, but the cost is lowered in terms of the amount spent per work hour.
Scaffolds and cranes allow the work to progress, step by step, with the scaffolding being moved
upward as each successive layer of construction is completed. This means buildings constructed in
this way are always built from the bottom up, and work must progress in a linear way. Higher
sections can't be worked upon at all until the lower sections are completed.
Because the majority of construction is composed of modular units, work can be performed very
efficiently, and it is easy for workers to be trained to carry out their tasks. Safety is also generally
better on these construction sites than on slipform sites.
Lecture Notes
Finally, errors on a jump work site are relatively easy to correct, whereas on a slipform site they
are not. Equipment malfunctions on a jump work site are inconvenient, whereas on a slipform site
they can be disastrous.
High Strength Concrete
High strength concrete and high-performance concrete are not synonymous because strength and
performance of concrete are different properties of concrete. High-strength concrete is defined
based on its compressive strength at a given age.
During 1970s, any concrete mixtures which showed 40 MPa or more compressive strength at 28
days were designated as high strength concrete. As the time passed, more and more high strength
concrete such as 60 – 100 MPa, were developed which were used for the construction of long-
span bridges, skyscrapers etc.
While high strength concrete is defined purely on the basis of its compressive strength, Mehta and
Aitcin defined the high-performance concrete (HPC) as concrete mixtures possessing high
workability, high durability and high ultimate strength.
ACI defined high-performance concrete as a concrete meeting special combinations of

performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely using
conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing, and curing practice.
Typical Classification of Concrete:

Lecture Notes
Concrete Types Concrete Strength
Normal strength concrete 20 – 50 MPa
High Strength Concrete 50 – 100 MPa
Ultra High Strength Concrete 100 – 150 MPa
Especial Concrete > 150 MPa
High strength of concrete is achieved by reducing porosity, in-homogeneity, and micro-cracks in

the hydrated cement paste and the transition zone. Consequently, there is a reduction of the
thickness of the interfacial transition zone in high-strength concrete. The densification of the
interfacial transition zone allows for efficient load transfer between the cement mortar and the
Lecture Notes
coarse aggregate, contributing to the strength of the concrete. For very high-strength concrete
where the matrix is extremely dense, a weak aggregate may become the weak link in concrete
strength.
Materials for High Strength Concrete
Cement
Cement composition and fineness play an important role in achieving high strength of concrete. It
is also required that the cement is compatible with chemical admixtures to obtain the high-
strength. Experience has shown that low-C3A cements generally produce concrete with improved
rheology.
Aggregate
Selection of right aggregates plays an important role for the design of high-strength concrete mix.
The low-water to cement ratio used in high-strength concrete makes the concrete denser and the
aggregate may become the weak link in the development of the mechanical strength. Extreme care
is necessary, therefore, in the selection of aggregate to be used in very high-strength concrete.
The particle size distribution of the fine aggregates plays an important role in the high strength
concrete. The particle size distribution of fine aggregate that meets the ASTM specifications is
adequate for high-strength concrete mixtures.
Aitcin recommends using fine aggregates with higher fineness modulus (around 3.0). His
reasoning is as follows:
1. High-strength concrete mixtures already have large amounts of small particles of cement
and pozzolan, therefore fine particles of aggregate will not improve the workability of the
mix;
2. The use of coarser fine aggregates requires less water to obtain the same workability; and
3. During the mixing process, the coarser fine aggregates will generate higher shearing
stresses that can help prevent flocculation of the cement paste.
Guidelines for the selection of materials
1. For the higher target compressive strength of concrete, the maximum size of concrete
selected should be small, so that the concrete can become more dense and compact and
less void ratio.
2. Up to 70 MPa compressive strength can be produced with a good coarse aggregate of a
maximum size ranging from 20 to 28 mm.
3. To produce 100 MPa compressive strength aggregate with a maximum size of 10 to 20
mm should be used.
Lecture Notes
4. To date, concretes with compressive strengths of over 125 MPa have been produced, with
10 to 14 mm maximum size coarse aggregate.
5. Using supplementary cementitious materials, such as blast-furnace slag, fly ash and natural
pozzolans, not only reduces the production cost of concrete, but also addresses the slump
loss problem.
6. The optimum substitution level is often determined by the loss in 12- or 24-hour strength
that is considered acceptable, given climatic conditions or the minimum strength required.
7. While silica fume is usually not really necessary for compressive strengths under 70 MPa,
most concrete mixtures contain it when higher strengths are specified.
Differences between Normal Strength Concrete and High Strength Concrete
Micro-cracks are developed in the normal strength concrete when its compressive strength reaches
40% of the strength. The cracks interconnect when the stress reaches 80-90% of the strength.
For High Strength Concrete, Iravani and MacGregor reported linearity of the stress-strain diagram
at 65 to 70, 75 to 80 and above 85% of the peak load for concrete with compressive strengths of
65, 95, and 105 MPa.
The fracture surface in NSC is rough. The fracture develops along the transition zone between the
matrix and aggregates. Fewer aggregate particles are broken. The fracture surface in HSC is
smooth. The cracks move without discontinuities between the matrix and aggregates.
Lecture Notes
Sulphate Resistant Cement
Sulphate-resisting cement is more resistant than ordinary portland cement to the action of
mineralized water containing sulphates; it also has lower heat of hydration and slower hardening.
Moderate and High-Sulphate-Resistant Cements are used in situations where concrete is exposed
to soils high in sulphate content, for example slabs on the ground, pipe and concrete posts.
High Sulphate Resistant Hydraulic Cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulphate action,
principally where soils or ground waters have high sulphate content. It gains strength more slowly
than General Use hydraulic cement. Use of a low water-to-cementing-materials ratio and low
permeability are critical to the performance of any concrete exposed to severe sulphate attacks.
Like other portland cements, it is not resistant to acids and other highly corrosive substances
Some of the benefits of Sulphate Resistant cement include:
High Sulphate Resistance
Moderately lower heat of hydration
Recommended Applications
Where groundwater and soils have a high sulphate content
When moderately low heat of hydration is needed

Lecture Notes
UNDERWATER CONCRETING
There are several methods to carry out underwater concreting such as tremie method, pumping
methods, preplaced aggregate concrete etc. which are described.
The underwater concreting techniques designed mostly to prevent cement washout. These
methods did not obtain the full purpose of avoiding cement wash out at early stages of using under
water concreting apart from cases where large masses of concreting were employed.
Lecture Notes
However, more recent techniques could obtain the objective of preventing washing out of
concrete. In this article, various methods will be explored.
Methods of Underwater Concreting
Following are the methods of underwater concreting:
1. Tremie method
2. Pumping technique
3. Hydro valve method
4. Pneumatic valve method
5. Skip method
6. Tilting pallet barge method
7. Preplaced aggregate concrete
8. Toggle bags method
9. Bagged concrete method
1. Tremie Method of Underwater Concreting
Underwater concreting using tremie method is convenient for pouring large amount of high
flowable concrete. The concrete is moved to the hopper by either pumping, belt conveyer or skips.
Tremie pipe, which upper end connected to a hopper and lower end continuously submerged in
fresh concrete, is used to place concrete at the exact location from a hopper at the surface. The
reason to immerse the tremie pipe lower end is to prevent intermixing of both concrete and water.
Tremie pipe typical arrangement is shown in Figure-1.
Lecture Notes
Figure-1: Typical Arrangement of Tremie Method of Underwater Concreting
Process of Underwater Concreting using Tremie Method
There number of factors that should be considered during Tremie pipe technique of underwater
concreting:
Tremie Equipment
The tremie pipe might be configured in three different ways such as constant length that is raised
during concreting, pipe with different sections which dismantled during concreting and telescope
pipe.
An aluminum alloy pipe can adversely affect the concrete due to chemical reactions between them
therefore it should be avoided. The pipe should have an adequate diameter to prevent blockage
because of aggregate size.
The usual diameter is between 200- 300 mm and occasionally 150 mm and 450 mm could be used
but aggregate size should be considered for example 19 mm and 40 mm aggregate size is lower
limit for 150 mm 200 mm pipe diameter respectively.
Tremie seal
To avoid intermixing water and concrete in the pipe, a wooden plug of plat is used to seal the end
of the pipe. This prevents entering water in to the pipe and keeps it dry.
After the pipe reach the intended position the concrete is poured and break the seal. Then concrete
flow out of the pipe and creating a seal by accumulating around the lower end of the pipe
Placing the concrete
As soon as concreting began the pipe mouth should be submerged up to 1- 1.5 m into fresh
concrete to prevent water entering the pipe. The concrete flow rate is controlled by lowering and
raising the pipe and either decrease or increase in concrete discharge indicates the loss of the seal,
therefore flow of concrete should be continuous and carefully monitored.
Flow pattern
Two types of flow pattern are recognized namely, layered and bulging. The bulging flow is
desired because it displaced the concrete uniformly which leads to lesser laitance deformation and
flatter slopes.
Lecture Notes
2. Underwater Concreting using Pumping Technique
Underwater concreting using pumping technique is a developed version of Tremie pipe and it is
quicker method for concreting in areas that is difficult to access such as under piers.
Pumping provide several advantages that Tremie pipe is lacking for example, pouring concrete
from mixer to formworks directly, solve blockages in the pipe because concreting is through
pumping instead of using gravitational force, and risk of segregation is decreased. Figure 2 show
typical pipeline configuration.
Lecture Notes
Figure-2: Typical Configuration of Underwater Concreting Pump Line
3. Hydro Valve Method of Underwater Concreting
This method of underwater concreting is developed and employed by the Dutch in 1969. A
flexible hose which hydrostatically compressed is employed to pour concrete.
As soon as concrete placed in the upper of the pipe, both friction inside the pipe and hydrostatic
pressure is overcame by concrete weight. This leads to move concrete slowly in the pipe and avoid
segregation. A rigid tubular section is used to seal the end of the hose. This method is not costly
and quite simple. Figure 3 shows typical hydro valve arrangement.
Lecture Notes
Figure-3: Hydro Valve Apparatus for Underwater Concreting
4. Underwater Concreting using Pneumatic Valves
Pneumatic valves are joined to the end of the pipe line of concrete. There are different types of
valves which are employed for underwater concreting such as Abetong-Sabema and Shimizu.
These two valves are alike apart from a sensor that attached to the latter; its function is to close the
valve when concrete reach determined thickness.
Lecture Notes
Another type of valve is available which can be used to pour concrete at a depth of 52m without
immersing end of the pipe. The function of the valves is to permit, restrict, stop the discharge of
concrete and this method is the useful technique. Figure 4 show Abetong-Sabema valve.
Figure-4: Abetong-Sabema Pneumatic Valve
5. Underwater Concreting using the Skips Method
The equipment that is used for conveying concrete is a bucket with double door opening at the
bottom and overlapping canvas flaps which is fitted at the top to prevent concrete washing. The
skip is lowered down through water slowly as soon as it filled with concrete and when it reaches
the location the doors are opened either automatically or manually.
Lecture Notes
The Skip technique of underwater concreting is suitable for cases where a large mass of concrete
is required for stabilizing foundations and small amount of concrete is needed for different
locations. Shows opened and closed skips.
Figure-5: Skips for Underwater Concreting (a) Closed and (b) Opened
6. Underwater Concreting using Tilting Pallet Barge
This technique is useful for shallow water and the concrete is poured in thin layers. Along the
deck of the barge a tilting pallet is constructed upon which concrete is spread uniformly and then
fell into the water freely.
7. Underwater Concreting using Preplaced Aggregate Concrete
Preplaced aggregate concrete method is quite good for cases where pouring ordinary concrete is
difficult or improbable. It includes placing aggregate in the forms then injecting concrete into the
bottom and filled the forms to the top.
Lecture Notes
To prevent trapping water and air, concreting is beginning from the bottom. That is why it is
necessary to position the tubes in the forms before placing the aggregate.
Concrete strength about 70 to 100 percent of conventional concrete can be obtained in this
technique. The pipes are distributed with the maximum distance of 1.5 m and their diameters
ranges from 19 – 35 mm.
Figure-6: Preplaced Aggregate Concrete with Injecting Tubes
8. Toggle Bags Method
Toggle Bags method is useful when small amount of concrete is required. A reusable canvas bag
is sealed at the top with chain and secured with toggles is filled with concrete and dropped
carefully into the determined location then through opening at the bottom of the bag the concrete
is discharged.
9. Bagged Concrete Method
Bagged concrete method used for renew ballast or to seal holes temporarily. The bags are
produced from considerably strong fabric with capacity of 10 -20 liters and it carried by divers to
the selected position.
The concrete slump is between 19- 50 mm and 40 mm is the maximum aggregate size that can be
used. The installation of the bags is similar to bricks in order to create bonds.
Self-Compacting Concrete
Self-consolidating concrete is a highly flowable type of concrete that spreads into the form
without the need for mechanical vibration. Self-compacting concrete is a non-segregating concrete
that is placed by means of its own weight. The importance of self-compacting concrete is that
Lecture Notes
maintains all concrete’s durability and characteristics, meeting expected performance

requirements.
Concrete that segregates loses strength and results in honeycombed areas next to the formwork. A
well designed SCC mix does not segregate, has high deformability and excellent stability
characteristics
Self-Compacting Concrete Properties
Self-compacting concrete produces resistance to segregation by using mineral fillers or fines and
using special admixtures. Self-consolidating concrete is required to flow and fill special forms
under its own weight, it shall be flowable enough to pass through highly reinforced areas, and
must be able to avoid aggregate segregation. This type of concrete must meet special project
requirements in terms of placement and flow.
Self-compacting concrete with a similar water cement or cement binder ratio will usually have a
slightly higher strength compared with traditional vibrated concrete, due to the lack of vibration
giving an improved interface between the aggregate and hardened paste.
The concrete mix of SCC must be placed at a relatively higher velocity than that of regular
concrete. Self-compacting concrete has been placed from heights taller than 5 meters without
aggregate segregation. It can also be used in areas with normal and congested reinforcement, with
aggregates as large as 2 inches.
Self-Compacting Concrete Uses
Self-compacting concrete has been used in bridges and even on pre-cast sections. One of the most
remarkable projects built using self-compacting concrete is the Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge.
In this project, the SCC was mixed on-site and pumped through a piping system to the specified
point, located 200 meters away. On this particular project, the construction time was reduced from
2.5 years to 2 years. This type of concrete is ideal to be used in the following applications:
Drilled shafts
Columns
Earth retaining systems
Areas with high concentration of rebar and pipes/conduits
Self Compacting Concrete Benefits
1. Improved constructability.
2. Labor reduction.
3. Bond to reinforcing steel.
Lecture Notes
4. Improved structural Integrity.

5. Accelerates project schedules.
6. Reduces skilled labor.
7. Flows into complex forms.
8. Reduces equipment wear.
9. Minimizes voids on highly reinforced areas.
10. Produces superior surface finishes.
11. Superior strength and durability.
12. Allows for easier pumping procedure.
13. Fast placement without vibration or mechanical consolidation.
14. Lowering noise levels produced by mechanical vibrators.
15. Produces a uniform surface.
16. Allows for innovative architectural features.
17. It is recommended for deep sections or long-span applications.
18. Produces a wider variety of placement techniques.
Factors Affecting Self Compacting Concrete
1. Using self-compacting concrete must not be used indiscriminately. These factors can affect
the behavior and performance of self-compacting concrete:
2. Hot weather.
3. Long haul distances can reduce flowability of self-compacting concrete.
4. Delays on job site could affect the concrete mix design performance.
5. Job site water addition to Self-Compacting Concrete may not always yield the expected
increase in flowability and could cause stability problems.
Self-Compacting Concrete Special Considerations
1. Self-compacting concrete can have benefits and will shorten your construction time.
However, special attention should be focused on:
2. A full capacity mixer of self-compacting concrete might not be feasible due to potential
spillage along the road, producing environmental and contamination hazards.
3. Formwork should be designed to withstand the fluid concrete pressure that will be higher
than regular concrete.
4. Self-Consolidating Concrete may have to be placed in lifts in taller elements.
5. Production of SCC requires more experience and care than the conventional vibrated
concrete.
Lecture Notes
Pumped Concrete
Pumped concrete may be defined as concrete that is conveyed under pressure through either rigid
pipe or flexible hose and discharged directly into the desired location. Pumping may be used for
most all concrete construction, but is especially useful where space or access for construction
equipment is limited.
Pumping equipment consists of pumps which are of three types:
Piston type concrete pump

Lecture Notes
Pneumatic type concrete pump
Squeeze pressure type concrete pump
Other accessories are rigid pipelines, flexible hose and couplings etc.
A pumpable concrete, like conventional concrete mixes, requires good quality control, i.e.
properly graded uniform aggregates, materials uniformly and consistently batched and mixed
thoroughly. Depending on the equipment, pumping rates may vary from 8 to 130 m3 of concrete
per hour. Effective pumping range varies from 90 to 400 meters horizontally, or 30 to 100 meters
vertically. Cases have been documented in which concrete has successfully been pumped
horizontally upto 1400 meters and 430 meters vertically upward. New record values continued to
be reported.
Pumping
For the successful pumping of concrete through a pipeline, it is essential that the pressure in the
pipeline is transmitted through the concrete via the water in the mix and not via the aggregate; in
effect, this ensures the pipeline is lubricated. If pressure is applied via the aggregate, it is highly
likely that the aggregate particles will compact together and against the inside surface of the pipe
to form a blockage; the force required to move concrete under these conditions is several hundred
times that required for a lubricated mix.
If, however, pressure is to be applied via the water, then it is important that the water is not blown
through the solid constituents of the mix; experience shows that water is relatively easily pushed
through particles larger than about 600 microns in diameter and is substantially held by particles
smaller than this.
In the same way, the mixture of cement, water and very fine aggregate particles should not be
blown through the voids in the coarse aggregate. This can be achieved by ensuring that the
aggregate grading does not have a complete absence of material in two consecutive sieve sizes –
for example, between 10 mm and 2.36 mm. In effect any size of particle must act as a filter to
prevent excessive movement of the next smaller size of material.
Basic Considerations
Cement Content
Concretes without admixtures and of high cement content, (over about 460 kg/m3) are liable to
prove difficult to pump, because of high friction between the concrete and the pipeline. Cement
contents below 270 to 320 kg/m3 depending upon the proportion of the aggregate may also prove
difficult to pump because of segregation within the pipe line.
Workability
Lecture Notes
The workability of pumped concrete in general has an average slump of between 50 mm and 100
mm. A concrete of less than 50 mm slump is impractical for pumping, and slump above 125 mm
should be avoided. In mixtures with high slump, the aggregate will segregate from the mortar and
paste and may cause blocking in the pump lines.
The mixing water requirements vary for different maximum sizes and type of aggregates. The
approximate quantity of water for a slump of 85 mm and 100 mm is given in Table 1. In high
strength concrete due to lower water/cement ratio and high cement content, workability is reduced
with the given quantity of water per cu.m. of concrete. In such cases, water reducing admixtures
are useful. In the addition to this type of admixtures at normal dosage levels, to obtain a higher
workability for a given concrete mix, there is no necessity to make any alteration to the mix design
from that produced for the concrete of the initial lower slump. There is generally no loss of
cohesion or excess bleeding even when the hydroxycarboxylic acid baset materials are used.
If this class of product is used to decrease the water/cement ratio, again no change in mix design
will be required, although small alterations in plastic and hardened density will be apparent and
should be used in any yield calculations.
A loss of slump during pumping is normal and should be taken into consideration when
proportioning the concrete mixes. A slump loss of 25 mm per 300 meters of conduit length is not
unusual, the amount depending upon ambient temperature, length of line, pressure used to move
the concrete, moisture content of aggregates at the time of mixing, truck-haulage distance, whether
mix is kept agitated during haulage etc. The loss is greater for hose than for pipe, and is sometimes
as high as 20 mm per 30 meter.
Aggregates
The maximum size of crushed aggregate is limited to one-third of the smallest inside diameter of
the hose or pipe based on simple geometry of cubical shape aggregates. For uncrushed (rounded)
aggregates, the maximum size should be limited to 40% of the pipe or hose diameter.
The shape of the coarse aggregate, whether crushed or uncrushed has an influence on the mix
proportions, although both shapes can be pumped satisfactorily. The crushed pieces have a larger
surface area per unit volume as compared to uncrushed pieces and thus require relatively more
mortar to coat the surface. Coarse aggregate of a very bad particle shape should be avoided.
Lecture Notes
Difficulties with pump have often been experienced when too large a proportion of coarse
aggregate is used in an attempt to achieve economy by reducing the amount of cement; such mixes
are also more difficult and costly to finish. The grading of coarse aggregate should be as per IS :
383-1970. If they are nominal single sized then 10 mm and 20 mm shall be combined in the ratio
of 1:2 to get a 20 mm graded coarse aggregate. In the same way, 10 mm, 20 mm and 40 mm
aggregates shall be combined in the ratio of 1:1.5:3 to get a 40 mm graded coarse aggregate.
Fine aggregate of Zone II as per IS: 383-1970 is generally suitable for pumped concrete provided
15 to 30% sand should pass the 300 micron sieve and 5 to 10 percent should pass the 150 micron
sieve. Fine aggregate of grading as given in Table 2 is best for pumped concrete. The proportion
of fine aggregate (sand) to be taken in the mix design is given in Table 3. However, the lowest
practical sand content should be established by actual trial mixes and performance runs.

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Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017

Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock

Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay

Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone

Compound Formula Shorthand

Calcium oxide (lime) Ca0 C

Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2 S

Aluminum oxide (alumina) Al2O3 A

Iron oxide Fe2O3 F

Chemical composition of clinker

The cement clinker formed has the following typical composition:

Compound Formula Shorthand % by

Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6 C3A 10

Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2O10 C4AF 8

Belite or dicalcium silicate Ca2SiO5 C2S 20

Alite or tricalcium silicate Ca3SiO4 C3S 55

Sodium oxide Na2O N )

Potassium oxide K2O K )Up to 2

Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O CSH2 5

Properties of cement compounds

These compounds contribute to the properties of cement in different ways

Tricalcium aluminate, C3A:-

Tricalcium silicate, C3S:-

Dicalcium silicate, C2S:

Heat of hydration of cement

Stages Of Hydration Of Cement

Fig.2.The Heat of Hydration - Calorimetry curve.

2.Chemical and Physical properties

3.The temperature at which the hydration takes place

4.Air content (in case of air entrained concrete)

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

2. SIZE & SHAPE

Maximum size of aggregate should be less than

One-fourth of the minimum dimension of the concrete member.

One-fifth of the minimum dimension of the reinforced concrete member.

Specific gravities are primarily of two types.

Apparent specific gravity

Bulk specific gravity

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors.

Shape of aggregate particles

7. POROSITY & ABSORPTION

Very dry aggregate ( having no moisture)

Dry aggregate (contain some moisture in its pores)

Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand

Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of

10. SPECIFIC SURFACE OF AGGREGATE

To interfere hydration of cement

To prevent development of proper bond

To reduce strength and durability

To modify setting times

Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as under

Clay , silt & dust

14. ABRASION VALUE OF AGGREGATES

Classification of Aggregates as per Size and Shape

Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

Irregular or partly rounded aggregates

Flaky and elongated aggregates

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

Classification of Aggregates Based on Size

Following are the classification of aggregates based on size:

Aggregates are classified into 2 types according to size

Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm