Course Title: Computer Organization

and Architecture
Course Code: ITEC 2021

1
 CHAPTER ONE
DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

After completing this lesson you are able to:

• Identify the different graphic symbols of Logic circuits

• Draw circuits for different algebraic functions
• Simplify algebraic functions using Boolean algebra and K-
map
• Design combinational circuit
• List and Differentiate the different types of Flip-flops
• Differentiate between Combinational and Sequential circuits
2
INTRODUCTION

Computer Organization: Refers to the operational units and their

interconnection
• Focused on hardware details
Computer Architecture: Concerned with the structure and
behavior of the computer
• Focused on the specification of various functional modules
( processor and memory)
Includes
Information formats,
Instruction set, and
Techniques for addressing memory

3
Logic Gates:

• Binary Information is represented in a digital computers by

physical quantities called signals
• In the digital computer, electrical signals such as voltages exist
in either one of two recognizable states (say either +3 volt or
0.5 volt)
• The two states represent a binary variable that can be equal to
1 or 0
• The manipulation of binary information is done by logic
circuits called gates

4
• Gates are blocks of hardware that produce signals of binary 1
or 0 when input requirements are satisfied
• There are a variety of logic gates with distinct graphic symbol
and truth tables

5
Cont…

6
Cont…

7
• Exercise: Draw logic circuits for the following algebraic
expressions:
 
a. X+Y’Z
b. AB’+C’D
c. AB + A’B’ + A’BC

8
 Boolean Algebra

• Deals with binary variables (F, x, y, z … ) and logic operations

(OR, AND, NOT …)
• For the given value of variables, the Boolean function can be
either 0 or 1
• For Example, the Boolean function
F= X+Y’Z
• The function F is 1 if either X=1 or if both Y’ and Z equal to 1,
otherwise F is equal to 0
• The relationship between F and x,
y & z can be put in table form
• This table is called the truth table

9
Purpose of Boolean algebra:

1. Express in algebraic form a truth table relationship between

binary variables
2. Express in algebraic form the input-output relationship of
logic diagrams
3. Find simpler circuits for the same function

10
Rules of Boolean algebra:

Single variable theorems:

1a. 0 · 0 = 0  
1b. 1 + 1 = 1 5a. x · 0 = 0
2a. 1 · 1 = 1 5b. x + 1 = 1
2b. 0 + 0 = 0 6a. x · 1 = x
3a. 0 · 1 = 1 · 0 = 0 6b. x + 0 = x
3b. 1 + 0 = 0 + 1 = 1 7a. x · x = x
4a. If x=0, then x'=1 7b. x + x = x
4b. If x=1, then x'=0 8a. x · x' = 0
8b. x + x' = 1
9. x'' = x

11

• Two and three variable properties:
Commutative
10a. x · y = y · x
10b. x + y = y + x
Associative
11a. x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z
11b. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
Distributive
12a. x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z
12b. x + y · z = (x + y) · (x + z)
Cont…
Absorption
13a. x + x · y = x
13b. x · (x + y) = x
14a. x · y + x · y' = x
14b. (x + y) · (x + y') = x
DeMorgans Theorem
15a. (x · y)' = x' + y'
15b. (x + y)' = x' · y' 
16a. x + x' · y = x + y
16b. x · (x' + y) = x + y
12
Exercise:

1. Show (x + y) · (x + y') = x
2. Simplify (A + A’)(AB + ABC)
3. Simplify the following boolean function and draw its logic
circuit.
F= x’·y’ + x’·y + x·y’
4. Simplify the following boolean function and draw its logic
circuit.
F = yz + xyz’ + xyz + xy’z’ + xy’z
5. Simplify and draw its logic circuit for AB + (AB )’C + A=
6. Simplify A + B[AC + (B + C’)D]=

13
 Map Simplification
 
• In addition to using Boolean algebra to simplify a Boolean
function, a technique called map simplification can also be
utilized
• The map method is known as the Karnaugh map or K-map
• Each combination of the variables in a truth table is called a
minterm
• There are 2n minterms for a function of n variables
• A square is considered adjacent to another square if it is next to,
above, or below it
• In addition, squares at the extreme ends of the same horizontal
row are also considered adjacent
• The same applies to the top and bottom squares of a column
14
• Maps for two, three and four variable function

15
Cont…

Sum-of-Products Simplification

• A Boolean function represented by a truth table is plotted into

the map by inserting 1's into those squares where the function
is 1
• Boolean functions can then be simplified by identifying
adjacent squares in the Karnaugh map that contain a 1

16
• Example: Simplify the following function in truth table using
SOP

X Y Z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

17
Example 1:

Simplify a Boolean function using K-Map

1. F (ABC) =∑ (3, 4, 6, 7)
F=BC+AC’
2. F (A B C) = Σ (0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
F=C’+AB’

18
Cont…

Product-of-Sum Simplification

• The 1’s in the Map represent minterms that produce 1 for the
function
• The squares not marked by 1represent minterms that produce a
0 for the function
• If we mark empty squares with a 0’s and combine them we can
get F’
• Taking the complement of F produces an expression in the
form of Product-of -sum

19
 Don't Care Conditions

• On occasion, it doesn't matter whether a function produces a 0 or 1

for a given minterm
• We don’t care what the function outputs is to be for this minterm
• Minterms that may produce either 0 or 1for a function are said to
be Don’t care Conditions
• X is used in the map to represent the don't care condition
• Don’t care condition can be used to provide further Simplification
• When choosing adjacent squares for the function in the map, the
x’s may be assumed to be either 0 or 1, whichever gives the
simplest expression

20
Cont…

• An x need not to be used at all if it does not contribute to the

simplification of the function
• As example consider the following Boolean function together
with the don’t care minterms:
F(A,B,C) = Σ0,2,6)
d(A,B,C) = Σ(1,3,5)

• The minterm listed with F produce a 1 for the function

• The don’t care minterms listed with d may produce either a 0
or 1 for the function
• The remaining minterms 4,7 produce a 0 for the function

21
Cont…

• The 1’s and x’s are combined in any convenient manner so as

to enclose the maximum number of adjacent squares
• By including the don’t care minterms 1 and 3 with the 1 in the
first row we obtain A’
• The remaining 1 for minterm 6 is combined with minterm 2 to
obtain the term BC’

F=A’ + BC’

22
Combinational circuits:
• A connected arrangement of logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND etc.)
with a set of inputs and outputs
• At any given time, the binary values of the outputs are a function of the
binary values of the inputs
• The design of a combinational circuit starts from a verbal outline of the
problem and ends in a logic circuit diagram

• The procedure involves the following steps:

1. The problem is stated

 2. The input and output variables are assigned letter symbols
3. The truth table that defines the relationship between inputs and outputs
is derived
4. The simplified Boolean functions for each output are obtained
5. The logic diagram is drawn
23
• Examples of simple arithmetic circuits
• Half Adder:- is a basic building block of adding two numbers as
two inputs and produce out two outputs.
• The adder is used to perform OR operation of two single bit binary
numbers.
• The augent and addent bits are two input states, and 'carry' and
'sum 'are two output states of the half adder

• S= X’Y + XY’ or S= X ⊕ Y, C=XY 24

Full-Add:-
Full Adder
The half adder is used to add only two numbers. To overcome this
problem, the full adder was developed. The full adder is used to
add three 1-bit binary numbers A, B, and carry C. The full adder
has three input states and two output states i.e., sum and carry

25
 Cont…

S= X ⊕Y ⊕Z
C= XY +(X ⊕Y)Z
Q. Show that X’Y’Z+X’YZ’+XY’Z’+XYZ is X ⊕Y ⊕Z

26
Flip Flop

• A Flip-flop is a binary cell capable of storing one bit of

information
• It has two outputs, one for the normal value and one for the
complement value of a bit stored in it
• Are storage elements utilized in synchronous sequential circuits
• Synchronous sequential circuits employ signals that effect
storage elements only at discrete instances of time
• Values maintained in the storage elements can only change
when the clock pulses
• The difference in the types of flip flops is in the number of
inputs and the manner in which the inputs affect the binary
state
27
• The most common types of flip flops are:

1. SR Flip-Flop
2. D Flip-Flop
3. JK Flip-Flop
4. T Flip-Flop

28
Sequential Circuits

• When a circuit contains just gates, it is called a combinational

circuit
• However, if a circuit contains both gates and flip-flops, it is
called a sequential circuit
• As shown in the diagram below the external inputs constitute
some of the inputs to the combinational circuit
• The internal outputs of the combinational circuit go to
external output and inputs to the flip-flops

29
End of Chapter 1

30