Chapter 1

Introduction to Digital
system
 Introduction
• Definition: Computer is an electronic device operated by instructions
stored in its memory
• Components: Hardware + Software
• Basic Functions: Data storage, movement, processing, and control

Why Digital ?
• Digital Technology: Generates, stores, and processes data in 0s
and 1s
• Binary Representation: Positive and non-positive states
• Bit: Binary digit, the smallest unit of digital data
Digital Signal
• Definition: Discrete series of pulses represented as 1s and 0s
• Characteristics: Counts but does not measure, discrete pulses,
prevalent in computer-based devices
• Examples: Light switch, volume control on a radio

Software and Hardware

• Program: Sequence of instructions or codes
• S/W Components: Program + Data
• H/W Components: CPU, Memory, I/O Device
 Computer Organization
• Definition: Concerned with the operation and connection of H/W
components
• Computer Design: Concerned with the hardware design
• Computer Architecture: Concerned with the structure and
behavior

Logic Gates
• Definition: Circuits manipulating binary information
• George Bool: Mid-19th century, introduced the concept of logic
in mathematics
• Electric Logic: True represented by voltage, False represented by
no voltage
Gate - Fundamental Building Block
• Definition: Implements a single Boolean or logical operation
• Output Signal: Simple Boolean operation on input signals
• Types: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR
• AND,OR,and NOT gets constitutes a functionally complete set, b/c they
represent the three operation of Boolean algebra.

Logic Gates Operations

• Gate Delay: Propagation time for signals through the gate
• Speed of Operation: Output changes almost instantaneously when input
values change
• Assertion: Causes a signal line to transition from logically false to
logically true
Logic Gates Overview
• Definition: Logic gates manipulate binary information
• Operation: When input values change, the correct output appears
with gate delay
• Assertion: Transition from logically false to logically true

Functionally Complete Sets

• Simplified Design: Design and fabrication are simpler with one or
two gate types
• Functionally Complete Sets: AND, OR, NOT; AND, NOT; OR,
NOT; NAND; NOR
• Importance: Identifying sets where any Boolean function can be
implemented
DeMorgan’s Theorem
• AND, OR, NOT Gates: Form a functionally complete set
• Synthesizing OR from AND and NOT: Applying
DeMorgan’s theorem

Logic Gate Definitions

• AND Gate: Represents multiplication in arithmetic
• OR Gate: Represents addition in arithmetic
• NOT : Produces the complement function
• Buffer: Input same as output, used for power amplification
• NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR definitions
 AND
• §The same as the multiplication symbol of ordinary arithmetic
• §1 if input A and B are both equal to 1 ,otherwise the output is 0.
• §Logic notation AŸB = C (Sometimes AB = C)
 OR
• The same as the arithmetic addition
• 1 if input A or B or both are equal to 1 ,otherwise the output is 0.
• Logic notation A+B = C

NOT (Inverter)
• inverts the logic sense of a binary signal. It produces the NOT or
complement function.
• Logic notation x’ or
 Buffer
• Input same as output
• Used merely for power amplification

NAND (not-AND)
• Complement of the AND function
x y NAND
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 XOR (Exclusive-OR)

XNOR (Exclusive-NOR) (Equivalence)

NOR (not-OR)
• Complement of the AND function
Boolean Algebra
• Basics: Uses Boolean variables and operators
• Expressions: Combination of variables and operators
• Equivalent Expressions: Logically equivalent expressions
• Boolean Function: Produces a result based on input values
• Example: Equation F = x + y’z
Example

F3

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4

F4 = x y' + x' z
 Boolean Algebra

• Definition of Boolean Algebra

• Purpose: Facilitate analysis and design of digital circuits
• Application: Express truth table relationships, logic diagram input-output
relationships, and find simpler circuits
 Cont…
• Commutative Law x•y=y•x x+y=y+x
• Identity Element x•1=x x+0=x
• Complement x • x’ = 0 x + x’ = 1
• Duality
The dual of a Boolean algebraic expression is obtained by interchanging the AND and the OR operators and
replacing the 1’s by 0’s and the 0’s by 1’s.
Example1: a+(bc)=(a + b)(a + c)
Form the replacement of the expression
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Example2: 100101110= 011010001
Distributive law
 x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
 x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)
• Theorem 1
 x•x=x x+x=x
• Theorem 2
 x•0=0 x+1=1
 Cont…
• Theorem 3: Involution
 ( x’ )’ = x (x)=x
• Theorem 4: Associative & Distributive
 (x•y)•z=x•(y•z)
 (x+y)+z=x+(y+z)
 x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
 x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)
• Theorem 5: DeMorgan
 ( x • y )’ = x’ + y’ ( x + y )’ = x’ • y’
• Theorem 6: Absorption
 x•(x+y)=x x+(x•y)=x
simplification.
Cont …
 Cont…

Combinational Circuits
• Overview of Combinational Circuits
• Characteristics
n binary inputs from an external source
m binary outputs to an external destination
Described by a truth table or a Boolean function
Cont…
 Cont…
• Q? draw combination circuit and truth table for the following
Boolean expression
 Half Adder
A combinational circuit that performs the athematic addition of two bits
• The input variable of a half adder is called the augend and addend bits. the output
variables sum and carry.
• A half adder circuit has one significant drawback: since pair of bits can produce
an output carry, in addition to the inputs A and B, we need to account for a
possible carry over from a bit of the lower order of magnitude. Unfortunately, half
adder has no support for such carry over input by design.
 Full Adder
• Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit.
• It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c.
• The Full Adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.
Full Adder
 Cont…

Cont…

 The output is equal to 1 when only one input is equal to 1 or when all
three inputs are equal to 1.
 The output has a carry 1 if two or three inputs are equal to 1
Implementation of Boolean Functions
• Electronic Implementation
• Alternatives: Various realizations for a given function
• Example: Boolean function represented by a truth table

Sequential Circuits
• Definition of Sequential Circuits
• Clock: Emits pulses with a precise pulse width and interval
• Types
Synchronous: Responds at discrete time intervals
Asynchronous: Immediately responds to input level changes
Sequential circuits can be divided into
1. Synchronous
2. Asynchronous
Synchronous: responds to the inputs only at discrete time intervals.
Asynchronous: immediately responds to input level changes
• In synchronous sequential circuit, all flip-flops are moved by the same clock pulse
so that all flip-flops involved change simultaneously.
 Cont…
In asynchronous circuit, the change of flip-flop condition depends on the change
that occurs on the input and the late time that is in the circuit. It illustrates as the
following diagram
 Clock
• A clock is a circuit that emits a series of pulses with a precise pulse
width and a precise interval between consecutive pulses.
• This interval is called the clock cycle time. Clock speed is generally
measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of pulses per second.
• A clock is used by a sequential circuit to decide when to update the
state of the circuit

Flip Flops Overview

• Definition of Flip Flops
• Applications: Used in registers, counters, memory, etc
• Types
SR : Set, reset, and clock inputs
D Flip Flop: Suitable for use as a memory element
 SR (set_reset)
• It has three inputs labeled S (for set), R (for reset) and C (for clock).
• It has an output Q and sometimes the flip-flop has a complemented output,
• There is an arrow head-shaped symbol in front of the letter C to designate a
dynamic input.
• The dynamic indicator symbol denotes the fact that the flip-flop responds to a
positive transition (from 0 to 1) of the input clock signal.
 SR (set_reset)
• The S and R columns give the binary values of the two inputs.
• Q (t) is the binary state of the Q output at a given time (referred to as present
state).
• Q (t + 1) is the binary state of the Q output after the occurrence of a clock
transition (referred to as next state).
• If S=R=0 a clock transition produces no change of state [i.e. Q (t + 1) =Q (t)].
• If S=0 and R=1 the flip-flop goes to the 0 (clear) state.
• If S=1 and R=0 the flip-flop goes to the 1 (set) state.
• The SR flip-flop should not be pulsed when S = R = 1 since it produces an
indeterminate next state. This indeterminate condition makes the SR flip-flop
difficult to manage and therefore it is seldom used in practice.
 D Flip Flop
• A slight modification of the SR flip-flop.
• The D input is sampled during the occurrence of a clock transition from 0 to 1.
• If D = 1, the output of the flip-flop goes to the 1 state, but if D = 0, the output of
the flip-flop goes to the 0 state.
It is very suitable to be used as memory element and this flip-flop is mostly used
to make registers and computer memory (RAM).
• Q (t + 1) = D. This means that the Q output of the flip-flop receives its value
from the D input every time that the clock signal goes through a transition from
0 to 1.
• The advantage of D flip-flop is having only one input
• disadvantage that its characteristics table does not have a “no change “condition
Q (t +1) = Q (t).
 Cont…

J-K Flip Flop

• The function of clock is same as S ‑R flip-flop. Unlike S ‑R flip-flop, J ‑K
flip-flop allows all combination of inputs.
If J = 0 and K = 0, it will maintain the flip-flop condition like before
If J = 0 and K = 1, it will cause flip-flop to change to condition 0 (reset).
If J = 1 and K = 0, it will cause flip-flop to change to condition 1 (set).
If J = 1 and K = 1, it will change the flip-flop condition, that is it will
become complementary to the initial or prior condition
 T Flip Flop
• It is obtained from a JK type when inputs J and K are connected to provide
a signal input designated by T.
• When T = 0 (J = K = 0) a clock transition does not change the state of the
flip-flop.
• When T = 1 (J = K = 1) a clock transition complements the state of the flip-
flop. These conditions can be expressed by a characteristic equation: Q (t +
1) =Q(t) + T
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