Chapter 1

Computer System
architecture
 Computer Organization , Design and
Architecture
Computer organization: It concerned with the way the
hardware components operate and the way they are
connected together to form the computer system.

Computer design: Is concerned with the hardware design

of the computer. It determines what hardware should be
used and how the parts should be connected

Computer architecture: Is concerned with the structure

and behavior of the computer. It is the specification of the
various functional modules such as processors and
memories and structuring them together into a computer
system.
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Logic gates
 Manipulation of binary information is done by logic circuits
called Gates.
Logic
a branch of mathematics that deals with true and false values
instead of numbers
Electric Logic
Logical values can easily be expressed by an electrical circuit
“True” or “1”:- voltage on a wire while “False” or “0” :- no
voltage

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Gate
The fundamental building block of all digital logic
circuits
A gate is an electronic circuit that produces an output
signal that is a simple Boolean operation on its input
signals.
are blocks of hardware that produce signals of binary
1 or 0 when input logic requirements are satisfied.
Logical functions are implemented by the
interconnection of gates.

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• basic gates used in digital logic are :
AND
OR
NOT
NAND
NOR and
XOR (exlusive-OR)
• Each gate is defined in three ways:
graphic symbol: IEEE Std91
algebraic notation, and
truth table.

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Logic gates
AND
the same as the multiplication symbol of ordinary
arithmetic
1 if input A and B are both equal to 1 ,otherwise the
output is 0.
 Logic notation AB = C (Sometimes AB = C)

x x•y
y

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Logic gates
OR
the same as the arithmetic addition
1 if input A or B or both are equal to 1 ,otherwise the
output is 0.
 Logic notation A+B = C

x x+y
y

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Logic gates
NOT (Inverter)
inverts the logic sense of a binary signal. It produces
the NOT or complement function.
 Logic notation x’ or

x x

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Logic gates
NAND (not-AND)
 Complement of the AND function
x y NAND
x x•y 0 0 1
y 0 1 1
NOR (not-OR) 1 0 1
 Complement of the OR function 1 1 0

x x+y
y

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Logic gates
XOR (Exclusive-OR)
x xÅ y
y xy+xy

XNOR (Exclusive-NOR) (Equivalence)

x xÅ y xy+xy
y x y

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Boolean Algebra
• uses Boolean variables and Boolean operators
Boolean variables: A, B, C, a, b, c, X, Y, and Z
Boolean operators: AND, OR, and NOT
• A Boolean expression is a combination of Boolean
variables and Boolean operators.
• Equivalent expressions: Boolean expressions that are
logically equivalent to one another.
• A Boolean function has one or more input variables
and produces a result that is based on these input
values. The result can have a value of 0 or 1.

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Boolean Algebra
• The relationship between a function and its binary
variables can be represented in a truth table. we need
a list of the 2n combinations of the n binary variables.
• Example: equation F= x + y ’ z.

x F
y
z

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Boolean Algebra

• The purpose of Boolean algebra is to facilitate the

analysis and design of digital circuits.

• It provides a convenient tool to:

Express in algebraic form a truth table relationship between binary
variables.
Express in algebraic form the input-output relationship of logic diagrams.
Find simpler circuits for the same function.

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Boolean Algebra

COA-Chapter1 14
Boolean Algebra
• Commutative Law
x•y=y•x x+y=y+x
• Identity Element
x•1=x x+0=x
• Complement
x • x’ = 0 x + x’ = 1

COA-Chapter1 15
 Boolean Algebra
• Duality
The dual of a Boolean algebraic expression is obtained by interchanging the AND
and the OR operators and replacing the 1’s by 0’s and the 0’s by 1’s.
 x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
 x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)
• Theorem 1
 x•x=x x+x=x
• Theorem 2
 x•0=0 x+1=1

COA-Chapter1 16
 Boolean Algebra
• Theorem 3: Involution
 ( x’ )’ = x (x)=x
• Theorem 4: Associative & Distributive
 (x•y)•z=x•(y•z)
 (x+y)+z=x+(y+z)
 x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
 x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)
• Theorem 5: DeMorgan
 ( x • y )’ = x’ + y’ ( x + y )’ = x’ • y’
 (x•y) =x +y (x+y) = x•y
• Theorem 6: Absorption
 x•(x+y)=x x+(x•y)=x

COA-Chapter1 17
 Boolean Algebra
Exercise:
 List the truth table of the function:
F = xy + xy’ + y’z
 Draw the logic diagram

COA-Chapter1 18
 Boolean Algebra
Home Work:
1) Reduce the following Boolean expressions to the indicated
number of literals:
 (x’y’+ z)’ + z + xy + wz to three literals
A’B (D’ + C’D) + B (A + A’CD) to one literal
2) Given the Boolean function
F = xy’z + x’y’z + w’xy + wx’y + wxy
(a) Obtain the truth table of the function.
(b) Draw the logic diagram using the original Boolean
expression.
(c) Simplify the function to a minimum number of literals
using Boolean algebra

COA-Chapter1 19
Combinational Circuit
• a connected arrangement of logic gates with a set of inputs and outputs.
• The n binary input variables come from an external source, the m binary
output variables go to an external destination, and in between there is
an interconnection of logic gates.

• The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time depends only

on the levels present at input terminals.
The previous state of input does not have any effect on the present
state of the circuit.
The Combinational circuits do not use any memory.
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Combinational Circuit
Half Adder
•A combinational circuit that performs the athematic addition of two bits
•The input variable of a half adder is called the augend and addend bits.
the output variables sum and carry.

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 Combinational Circuit
Full Adder
•Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit.
•It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c.
•The Full Adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.

COA-Chapter1 22
 SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
• It is an Interconnection of flip-flops and gates.
• have input, present state, next state and output. Next state depends upon
present state and input. Output depends upon present state and input

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 clock
• A clock is a circuit that emits a series of pulses with a precise pulse width
and a precise interval between consecutive pulses.
• This interval is called the clock cycle time. Clock speed is generally
measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of pulses per second.
• A clock is used by a sequential circuit to decide when to update the
state of the circuit

COA-Chapter1 24
 Flip Flops
• a kind of logic circuit that is capable of exhibiting 2 stable conditions.
• 1-bit memory element
• used to make computer components
 registers,
counters,
memory etc.
• share two properties:
 is a bistable device either 0 or 1. It exists in one of two states and, in the absence
of input, remains in that state.
The flip-flop has two outputs, which are always the complements of each other.
These are generally labeled Q and Q’.

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the end

COA-Chapter1 26