The Nervous System

The nervous system is the body’s prime

communication and coordination network.

It is so vast and complex that, an

estimate is that all the individual nerves
from one body, joined end to end, could
reach around the world two and a half
times.
Classification of the Nervous System
Organization of the Nervous System
 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells of
CNS (Neuroglia or Glia)
 Astrocytes
 Microglia
 Ependymal cells
 Oligodendrocytes
 Neuroglia vs. Neurons
• Neuroglia divide.
• Neurons do not.
• Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
• Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia
cells, not the neurons.
• Consider the role of cell division in cancer!
 Support Cells of the PNS

 Satellite cells
 Schwann cells
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

 Neurons = nerve cells

 Cells specialized to transmit messages
 Major regions of neurons
 Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center
of the cell
 Processes – fibers that extend from the
cell body (dendrites and axons)
 Neuron Cell Body Location

 Most are found in the central nervous

system
 Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated
fibers
 Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
 How Neurons Function
(Physiology)
 Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli.
 Conductivity – ability to transmit an
impulse.
 The plasma membrane at rest is
polarized.
 Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell.
Starting a Nerve Impulse

 Depolarization – a
stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane
 A deploarized
membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
 The exchange of ions
initiates an action
potential in the neuron
The Action Potential
 If the action potential (nerve
impulse) starts, it is
propagated over the entire
axon.
 Potassium ions rush out of the
neuron after sodium ions rush
in, which repolarizes the
membrane.
 The sodium-potassium pump
restores the original
configuration.
 This action requires ATP
Continuation of the Nerve Impulse
between Neurons
 Impulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
 Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s
axon terminal
 The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
 An action potential is started in the dendrite
 How Neurons Communicate at
Synapses

Figure 7.10
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.22
 The Reflex Arc
 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli
 Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
• Most reflexes are concerned with survival
and defending the body against damage
and harm, such as coughing to remove
irritants from the lower airways and
sneezing to clear the nasal airways.
• Spinal reflexes involve circuits of sensory
nerve fibers that feed information to the
spinal cord and then connect directly, or via
an intermediate neuron, to motor nerve
fibers, so that the resulting instructions for
movement go directly out from the cord to
the relevant muscles and not to the brain,
to be activated.
Simple Reflex Arc
Tapping the patellar tendon below the kneecap
stretches the front thigh muscle. This
stimulates microsensors in the tendon and
muscle that transmit nerve signals to the spinal
cord. Motor nerve fibers relay signals straight
back to the muscle, which contracts and
causes a slight kick.
 Types of Reflexes and Regulation
 Autonomic reflexes
 Smooth muscle regulation
 Heart and blood pressure regulation
 Regulation of glands
 Digestive system regulation
 Somatic reflexes
 Activation of skeletal muscles
 Central Nervous System (CNS)

 CNS develops from the embryonic

neural tube
 The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
 The opening of the neural tube becomes
the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Regions of the Brain

 Cerebral
hemispheres
(Cerebrum)
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
1)The cerebrum, with its cerebral cortex, gives
us conscious control of our actions.

2)The diencephalon mediates sensations,

manages emotions, and commands whole
internal systems.

3)The cerebellum adjusts body movements,

speech coordination, and balance.

4)The brain stem relays signals from the spinal

cord and directs basic internal functions and
reflexes.
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

 Paired (left
and right)
superior parts
of the brain
 Include more
than half of
the brain
mass
Figure 7.13a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.28a
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

 The surface
is made of
ridges (gyri)
and grooves
(sulci)

Figure 7.13a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.28b
 Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the

cerebrum into lobes
 Surface lobes of the cerebrum
 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe
Functions of the frontal lobe:
• Decision-making, problem-solving.
• Conscious thought.
• Attention.
• Emotional and behavioral control.
• Speech production.
• Personality.
• Intelligence.
• Body movement.
Functions of the parietal lobe:

•Sensory information (touch, pressure, pain,

position, vibration, temperature) processing.

• Spatial processing and spatial manipulation.

This is the ability to understand where you
are in three-dimensional space, such as how

to navigate around your home or town.

Functions of the occipital lobe

• Visual processing and interpretation.

• Visual data collection regarding color,
motion and orientation.
• Object and facial recognition.
• Depth and distance perception.
• Visual world mapping.
Functions of the temporal lobe:

• Language comprehension, speech

formation, learning.
• Memory.
• Hearing.
• Nonverbal interpretation.
• Sound-to-visual image conversion.
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

 Some researchers look at the brain in another way and

classify the areas of the cerebral cortex by their three
main types of functions: sensory, motor and
association areas.
 Sensory areas
 Motor areas
 Association areas
Sensory areas: 
•Making sense of visual information and object recognition
(area of your occipital lobe called the visual cortex).
• Assessing touch, temperature, position, vibration,
pressure and pain information from your body (area
of your parietal lobe called the somatosensory cortex).
• Processing hearing information (area of your temporal
lobe called the auditory cortex).
• Processing taste and flavor (area of your frontal lobe
called the gustatory cortex).
Motor areas: 
Involved in voluntary muscle movement.
These functions are processed mainly by your
frontal lobe.
Functions include:
• Coordination of muscle movement.
• Planning of complex movements.
• Learning through imitation and empathy.
Association areas: 
These areas are spread throughout all four lobes
and connect and add complexity to functions.
Functions include:
• Organizing and giving meaning to
information from sensory and motor areas.
• Personality and controlling emotional behaviors.
• Spatial awareness and reasoning.
• Memory processing.
• Build visual information with memories, sound
and language.
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.13c

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 7.32c
 Layers of the Cerebrum
 Gray matter
 Outer layer
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
 White matter
 Inner layer
 Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
 Example: corpus callosum connects
hemispheres
Layers of the Cerebrum
 Diencephalon

 Sits on top of the brain stem

 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Made of three parts
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
 Thalamus
 Surrounds the third ventricle
 The relay station for sensory impulses
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of
the cortex for localization and
interpretation
 Hypothalamus
 Under the thalamus
 Important autonomic nervous system
center
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Controls water balance
 Regulates metabolism
 An important part of the limbic system
(emotions)
 The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus
Epithalamus

 Forms the roof of the third ventricle

 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
 Includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain Stem

 Attaches to the spinal

cord
 Parts of the brain stem
 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
 Mostly composed of tracts of nerve
fibers
 Reflex centers for vision and hearing
 Cerebral aqueduct – 3rd-4th ventricles
Pons

 The bulging center part of the brain

stem
 Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
 Medulla Oblongata
 The lowest part of the brain stem
 Merges into the spinal cord
 Includes important fiber tracts
 Contains important control centers
 Heart rate control
 Blood pressure regulation
 Breathing
 Swallowing
 Vomiting
Cerebellum

 Two hemispheres with convoluted

surfaces
 Provides involuntary coordination of
body movements
Cerebellum
Protection of the Central Nervous
System
 Scalp and skin
 Skull and vertebral column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood brain barrier
Meninges

 Dura mater
 Double-layered external covering
 Periosteal layer – attached to surface of
the skull
 Meningeal layer – outer covering of the
brain
Folds inward in several areas
Meninges

 Arachnoid layer
 Middle layer
 Web-like
 Pia mater
 Internal layer
 Clings to the surface of the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Similar to blood plasma composition

 Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
spinal cord.
CSF is a clear liquid, which is renewed
four to five times a day.

It is produced in clusters of thin- walled

capillaries called the Choroid Plexuses.

It contains proteins and glucose that

provide energy for brain cell function as
well as lymphocytes that guard against
infection.

Circulation of the fluid is aided by

pulsations of the cerebral arteries.
Blood Brain Barrier
 Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body
 Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
 Useless against some substances
 Fats and fat soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia
 Blood Brain Barrier
• To protect against circulating toxins or
pathogens that could cause brain
infections.

• Allowing vital nutrients to reach the brain.

• Help maintain relatively constant levels of

hormones, nutrients and water in the brain
(fluctuations in which could disrupt the
finely tuned environment)
Traumatic Brain Injuries
 Concussion
 Slight brain injury
 No permanent brain damage
 Contusion
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate
 Cerebral edema
 Swelling from the inflammatory response
 May compress and kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

 Commonly called a stroke

 The result of a ruptured blood vessel
supplying a region of the brain
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
that blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may
result
Spinal Cord
 Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
the region of T12
 Below T12 is the cauda
equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
 Enlargements occur in
the cervical and lumbar
regions
Spinal Cord Anatomy

Exterior white mater – conduction tracts

Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
Dorsal (posterior) horns
Anterior (ventral) horns
Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Meninges cover the spinal cord
Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
Dorsal root
Ventral root
Spinal Cord Anatomy
Peripheral Nervous System

 Neuronal fibers and ganglia outside the

central nervous system
 Neuronal fibers are bundled by
connective tissue
Structure of a Nerve

 Endoneurium
surrounds each fiber
 Groups of fibers are
bound into fascicles
by perineurium
 Fascicles are bound
together by
epineurium
Spinal Nerves

 There is a
pair of spinal
nerves at the
level of each
vertebrae for
a total of 31
pairs.
Cranial Nerves

Twelve pairs of cranial nerves

connect the brain to eyes, ears,
and other sensory organs and to
head and neck muscles.
 Autonomic Nervous System

 The involuntary branch of the peripheral

nervous system
 Consists of only motor nerves
 Divided into two divisions
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division
Autonomic Functioning

 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
 Response to unusual stimulus
 Takes over to increase activities
 Remember as the “E” division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment
Autonomic Functioning

 Parasympathetic – housekeeping
activites
 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the “D” division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis
Development Aspects of the
Nervous System

 The nervous system is formed during

the first month of embryonic
development
 Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
 The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
Development Aspects of the
Nervous System

 No more neurons are formed after birth,

but growth and maturation continues for
several years (new evidence!)
 The brain reaches maximum weight as
a young adult
 However, we can always grow
dendrites!
THANK YOU!