GAIT

• In human locomotion we discover how

individual joints and muscle function in
integrated manner both to maintain upright
posture and to motion of body as whole.
• knowledge of normal kinetics and kinematics
Of gait provides with foundation for analysis
identify and correcting abnormalities in gait
• Human body locomotion is defined as
translatory progression of body as whole
produced by co-ordinated rotatory
movements of body segments resulting in
progression of body.
• Alternating movements of LL support and
carry HAT
 Gait Initiation
• Stereotype activity that includes series of
events that occurs from initiation of
movements to actual start of gait.
• It starts with erect posture with Tibialis anterior
activation and vastus laterALIS IN Coordination
to inhibit gastro muscles.
• b/l contraction of tib ant results in sagittal
torque that inclines the body anteriorly from
the ankle
• CoP shift
• Abduction of swing hip almost simultaneously to
tib ant causing anterior propulsion on support
limb
• Gait initiation ends with either stepping or swing
limb lifts off the ground or with heel strike
• Duration 0.64 sec
• No change for rt or lt
►Gait Cycle =
– Single sequence of functions by one limb
– Begins when reference font contacts the ground
– Ends with subsequent floor contact of the same foot
►Step Length =
– Distance between corresponding successive points of
heel contact of the opposite feet
– Rt step length = Lt step length (in normal gait
►Stride Length =
– Distance between successive points of heel contact of
the same foot
– Double the step length (in normal gait)
►Walking Base =
– Side-to-side distance between the line of the two feet
– Also known as ‘stride width’
►Cadence =
– Number of steps per unit time
– Normal: 100 – 115 steps/min
– Cultural/social variations
► Velocity =
– Distance covered by the body in unit time
– Usually measured in m/s
– Instantaneous velocity varies during the gait cycle
– Average velocity (m/min) = step length (m) x cadence
(steps/min)

► Comfortable Walking Speed (CWS) =

– Least energy consumption per unit distance
– Average= 80 m/min (~ 5 km/h , ~ 3 mph)
Gait Cycle - Components:
► Phases:
(1) Stance Phase: (2) Swing Phase:
reference limb reference limb
in contact not in contact
with the floor with the floor
►Support:
(1) Single Support: only one foot in contact with the floor
(2) Double Support: both feet in contact with floor
 Gait variables
• Time and distace
• Temporal
Stance time , single leg double leg supporting
time, swing time, stride and step time,
cadance speed.
• Special
stride legth, step length and width, degree of
out toeig.
 Gait Cycle - Subdivisions:
A. Stance phase:
1. Heel contact: ‘Initial contact’(RLA)
2. Foot-flat: ‘Loading response’, initial contact of forefoot w. ground
3. Midstance: greater trochanter in alignment w. vertical bisector of
foot
4. Heel-off: ‘Terminal stance’
5. Toe-off: ‘Pre-swing’
 Gait Cycle - Subdivisions:
B. Swing phase:
1. Acceleration: ‘Initial swing’
2. Midswing: swinging limb overtakes the limb in stance
3. Deceleration: ‘Terminal swing’
►Time Frame:
A. Stance vs. Swing:
►Stance phase = 60% of gait cycle
►Swing phase = 40%
B. Single vs. Double support:
►Single support= 40% of gait cycle
►Double support= 20%
►With increasing walking speeds:
►Stance phase: decreases
►Swing phase: increases
►Double support: decreases
►Running:
►By definition: walking without double support
►Ratio stance/swing reverses
►Double support disappears. ‘Double swing’ develops
 Stance phase
• Heel strike (initial contact) heel of leading extrimity
strikes the ground
• Foot flat(Loading response) foot fully contacts the
ground..(immediately following initial
contact ,Continues until contralateral limb is off the
ground)
• Mid stance body weight is directly over supporting
extrimity( begins with contralateral limb is off the
ground continues in position to which body has
progressed over and ahead of supporting extrimity)
• Heel off (Terminal stance): pt at which heel is off the
ground (period begins when the body is directly
over the supporting limb at about 30% of the gait
cycle and ends a point just before initial contact of
the contralateral extremity.

• Toe-off: phase begins with heel-off at about 40% of

the gait cycle and ends with toe-off at about 60% of
the gait cycle(Preswing (RLA) is the last 10% of
stance phase and begins with initial contact of the
contralateral and ends with toe-off)
 Swing phase
• Acceleration, or early swing phase , begins
once the toe leaves the ground and continues
until midswing, or the point at which the
swinging extremity is directly under the body
• Initial swing (RLA) begins when the toe leaves
theground and continues until maximum knee
flexion occurs.
• Midswing (T) occurs approximately when the
extremity passes directly beneath the body, or
from the end of acceleration to the beginning
of deceleration.
• Midswing (RLA) encompasses the period from
maximum knee flexion until the tibia is in a
verticalposition.
• Deceleration (T), or late swing phase, occurs
after midswing when limb is decelerating in
preparation for heel strike.
• Terminal swing (RLA) includes the period from
the point at which the tibia is in the vertical
position to a point just before initial contact.
• Early swing • Initial swing
• 60-75% • 60-73%
• Midswing • Midswing
• 75-85% • 73-87%
• Late swing • Terminal swing
• 85-100% • 87-100%
• Traditional
 Kinematics
• Joint motion
• Sagittal Plane Joint Angles
 Determinants of gait
• determinants” were supposed to represent
adjustments made by the pelvis, hips, knees,
and ankles that help to keep movement of the
body’s center of mass to a minimum.
• By decreasing the vertical and lateral
excursions of the body’s center of mass it was
thought that energy expenditure would be
less and gait more efficient.
• The determinants are pelvic rotation in the
transverse plane of about 8°
• Lateral pelvic tilt in the frontal plane, in which
the pelvis drops on the side of the swing leg.
• Knee flexion in stance phase, which should
keep the center of mass from rising as much
as it would have to if the body had to pass
over a completely extended knee.
• Interaction of the movements of the foot,
knee, and ankle, which may work together to
minimize the excursion of the center of mass.
• Physiologic valgus of the knee, which is said to
reduce side-to-side movement of the center
of mass in frontal plane.
 Kinetics
• Ground Reaction Force
• When a person takes a step, forces are applied
to the ground by the foot and by the ground
to the foot.
• These forces are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction.
• Center of Pressure
• The CoP of the foot on the supporting surface
moves along a path during gait and produces a
characteristic pattern.
Kinetic Analysis
 Frontal Plane Moments
• Large internal abduction moments of similar
shapes occur at the hip and knee, and a
smaller one occurs at the ankle.
• These are provided largely by ligament forces
across the knee and ankle joints.
Transverse Plane Moments
 Energy Requirements
• The main objective of locomotion is to move the
body through space with the least expenditure
of energy.
• Work is performed by the application of force,
which produces accelerations and decelerations
of the body and its segments.
• The overall metabolic cost incurred during
locomotion may be measured by assessing the
body’s oxygenconsumption per unit of distance
• All energy added to the body by means of
concentric muscle contractions results in
increases in velocity of some part or parts,
increases in height, or both.
• All energy taken away from the body by
means of eccentric contractions results in
decreases in velocity of some part or parts,
lowering of the part or parts, or both.
 Determinants of Gait

• 6 specific features that increase the

efficiency of walking and running gaits

• All reduce unnecessary movement of the

upper body, either vertically, or horizontally
in the lateral axis

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 DG1: Pelvic tilt
• Reduces the vertical movements of
the upper body, and thereby
increases energy efficiency.
• The pelvis slopes downwards
laterally towards the leg which is in
swing phase. i.e. rotation about an
anterior-posterior axis
• Only anatomically possible if the
swing leg can be shortened
sufficiently (principally by knee
flexion) to clear the ground.
• Where this is not possible (e.g.
through injury), the absence of
pelvic tilt and pronounced
movements of the upper body are
obvious.

39
 DG2: Pelvic rotation

• Rotation about a vertical

axis enables a given step
length to be achieved
with less vertical
excursion of the trunk.

• Alternatively, longer step

lengths can be achieved
for the same vertical
movement.

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 DG3: Knee flexion in stance
phase
• As the hip joint passes
over the foot during the
support phase, there is
some flexion of the
knee.
• This reduces vertical
movements at the hip,
and therefore of the
trunk and head.

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 DG4: Ankle mechanism

• At footstrike, the
effective length of the
leg is increased by the
projection of the
calcaneus behind the
ankle.

• This is brought about by

dorsiflexion at the ankle

42
 DG5: Forefoot mechanism

• During the final part of

the support phase, the
forefoot serves to
increase the effective
length of the leg lever.

• This is brought about by

plantarflexion at the
ankle

43
 DG6: Reduced lateral pelvic
displacement
• Is minimised by having a
narrow walking base i.e.
feet closer together than
are hips.
• Therefore less energy is
used moving hip from
side to side (less lateral
movement needed to
balance body over stance
foot.
• Enabled by valgus
angulation at the knee

44
 Running

• The main qualitative difference between walking and

running is the flight phase (i.e. period of no support) and
the absence of a period of double support.
• An important quantitative difference is that, in running
gait, the foot hits the ground less far in front of the body’s
centre of gravity, compared with walking (i.e. when we
run, the forward swinging leg “sticks out” less far in front
of the trunk at footstrike).
• This characteristic is more pronounced the faster the run.

45
The above two differences lead to the following consequences:
• When running, the body’s momentum alone has to carry it
over the support foot, as the other foot is not in contact with
the ground.
• The position of heelstrike, relative to the CoM, helps with this
(see previous slide), because it means that the CoM is not
lowered as much at footstrike.
• The position of heelstrike relative to the CoM also reduces the
‘braking effect’ of the GRF during the first part of the stance
phase

46
During transition from
walking to running,
•the period of double
support disappears
•a greater proportion of the
pace time is spent in the
swing phase:
Activity Approx %time on:
stance swing
Slow walk 60 40
Race walk 50 50
Run 30 70
Sprint 20 80

47
 Stride rate and length

• As running speed increases, both

stride rate and length become
higher.
• Initially, at relatively low speeds,
the changes are proportionally
greater in length than in rate
• Near maximum speed, however,
rate increases more than length.
• The explanation for this is in
terms of energy efficiency
• In energy terms, it is more
efficient to increase speed by
taking longer paces rather than
taking them more rapidly

48
 GRF during running
Compared with walking:

• Initial ‘contact’ peak is smaller and is not angled back as far

(less braking effect – see slide 45)
• Final ‘thrust’ peak is larger (need to project body into flight
phase, faster speeds etc)
• Duration of contact phase is shorter – of course!

49
 Energy considerations during
running
• Energy usage differs fundamentally between running and
walking
• In running, both kinetic and potential energy are high
during the flight phase.
• Energy storage in elastic tissues at the start of the support
phase has a more prominent role in running.
• By contrast, elastic energy storage during walking is
smaller – in fact we ignored it altogether when
considering this topic earlier.

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