Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Production
Shri. Anand Yadav
Manager, Print Production Centre
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik - 422 222.
This book of self - instructional material is based on the syllabus for the
subject Advanced Cost Accounting (M.Com : ACG 101). This book is written
after taking into consideration the revised syllabus prescribed for the M.Com
students of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik from
June, 2015. We hope that the book will help the students in understanding the
theory as well as the practical part related to the topics included in the syllabus
for the subject.
The authors welcome any valuable suggestions made by the students and
teachers.
Editor Authors
TOPIC 1 Introduction to Cost
Accounting
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit Objectives
3. Cost Concepts
1. Cost
2. Costing
3. Cost Accounting
4. Cost Accountancy
11. Summary
1.0 Introduction
Business enterprises all over the world are functioning in a highly
competitive environment with high degree of risk. They are required to function
more efficiently and more effectively to offer their products at comparatively
lower prices. This is necessary for achieving the objective of maximisation of
profit. Amount of profit earned depends upon the price of the product and
the cost incurred for manufacturing and selling of the product. Financial
Accounting was not able to help the management in obtaining information and
using it for decision-making, efficient management and for controlling cost.
Therefore, a new branch of accounting, viz. cost accounting come into
existence. In this unit, information is provided about some basic terms used in
costing and necessity for cost Accounting.
A
a
Cost Concepts
1.1 Unit
Objectives
After studying the information given in this unit, you should be able
to understand :
(i) ICMA London defines the term ‘Cost’ as, “the amount of expenditure
(actual or notional) incurred on or attributable to a specified thing or activity”.
(vii)W.M. Harper defines ‘Cost’ as, “the value of economic resources used as a
result of producing or doing the thing costed”.
(viii) According to Oxford Dictionary, “Cost is the price paid for something”.
Again the general concept of Cost which is most widely used is the money
cost of production. Another concept of Cost is the real cost according to
Marshall. Again Opportunity Cost concept is there. Opportunity Cost means
the sacrifice made for not utilising the other alternatives.
From the above definitions we can conclude that Cost is the total of all
expenses incurred, whether paid or outstanding, in the manufacturing and sale of
product or those incurred in giving a service. Costs are calculated from the
point of view of management which expects costs to perform three functions i.e.
cost computation, cost control and cost analysis. Thus, concept of Costs
depends upon the purpose for which it is used, the conditions under which it is
employed and the people who intend to use this concept. From the management
point of view the Cost may be direct, indirect, prime, conversion, joint, product,
period, controllable, out of pocket, imputed, differential, marginal, standard etc.
In short, Cost is a sacrifice made to achieve something and measured in terms
of money and has always been used with some specific objective. It depends
upon many factors and it changes with the changes in factors.
1.2.2 Costing :
Costing is simply cost finding. It is the process, technique and procedure
of ascertaining the costs. It includes all the principles, rules and regulations of
calculating the costs. The concept ‘Costing’ is defined in different ways by
various authorities as follows :
ii) Wheldon defines Cost Accounting as, “the classifying, recording and
appropriate allocation of expenditure for the determination of the costs of
products or services, the relation of these costs to sales values and the
ascertainment of profitability”.
iii) Van Sickle defines, “Cost Accounting is the science of recording and
presenting business transactions pertaining to the production of goods and
services, whereby these records become a method of measurement and means of
control.”
iv) Shillinglow defines, “ Cost Accounting as a body of concepts, methods and
procedures used to measure, analyse or estimate the costs, profitability and
performance of individual products, departments and other sequences of a
4 Advanced Cost Accounting - company’s operations, for either internal or external use or both and to report
I on
these questions to the interested parties”. Cost Concepts
ii) For Cost Presentation different forms and statements are prepared for
efficient reporting.
ii) It is an art because it is the ability and skill of the cost accountant to apply
the principles of cost accountancy to solve the intricate and complex
problems of the management.
iii It is the practice because cost accountant has to keep his knowledge up-
) to-date to the latest developments. He has to present the data to the
management in a most up-to-date manner with latest techniques and
methods for taking various decisions.
In the modern business world, business concerns need some methods and
ways by which they can measure their performance. Financial Accounting
cannot serve this purpose at all. The indications given by Profit and Loss
Account and Balance Sheet are generally inadequate. It is just like thermometer
which only indicates the temperature of human body. Judgements can be made
only on the basis of such thermometer and a good doctor will have number of
other checks made in order to see what the patient is suffering from. The profit
shown by Profit and Loss Account should not be taken as a sign of success
because there may be a loss on certain items which might have been
compensated by the profit of certain other items. Information regarding
wastages and losses is very difficult to get from Financial Accounting and
therefore it is only Cost Accounting which makes such information available to
the management . Hence, Cost Accounting has emerged mainly because of
certain limitations of Accounting which are shown in figure 1.2
ta
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14
3) It is static in nature :
Financial Accounting does not fully analyse the loss due to idle time, idle
plant capacities, inefficient labour , sub-standard material, etc.
Very often Financial Accounts are manipulated at the whim and fancies of
the management so as to project better image in the minds of prospective
investors. Financial Accounts may be manipulated by making under or
overvaluation of machinery, excessive or inadequate provisions for
depreciation, creation of secret reserves etc.
Financial Accounting does not help in ascertaining the break-even point. Advanced Cost Accounting - I 9
Cost Concepts i.e. the sale or output where the revenue equals the cost. Hence, the point
of no profit-no loss cannot be found out under financial accounts.
point of whether they are relating to the operating activities and also the view
point of thier relevancy to the decisions under the consideration of the
management.
Thus, compared with Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting, is relatively
a recent development. In fact, Cost Accounting started as a branch of Financial
Accounting. But now, it may well be regarded as a profession in its own right. NOTES
The vital importance that Cost Accounting has acquired in the modern age is
because of the growth of complexities in modern industry.
Ascertainmen
Cost
of
Stand ards
Measuring
Efficienc
t
for
y
Con
ration
of
t ro
st
ate
Co
of Co
l
Pr epa
Estim
st
D
ete Objectives of Cost Accounting
r
of min
ati
Re Cos dfeor
Se o
l
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Pr ling n
du t
avtai
prdoo
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ice
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To t
pro uention
bas vide eq
Fr para unt
is
Ope for pre Accother
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Pol ng of nd o r ts
icy a e po
R
i) Ascertainment of cost :
Every concern relies upon the reports on cost data to know the level of
efficiency regarding purchase , production, sales and operation results.
Financial accounts provide information only at the end of the year
because value of closing stock is available at the end of the year. But cost
accounts provide the value of closing stock at frequent intervals by
adopting, “continuous stock verification “ system. Using the value of
closing stock it is possible to prepare final accounts and to know the
operating results of the business.
i)Helps in Decision-Making :
The important decisions which are influenced by, to a greater extent, the
cost reports, are :
v) It facilitates Planning :
NOTES
This way, Cost Accounting serves the company, Further, it may be noted
here that Cost Accounting serves, directly or indirectly, all the parties in one way
A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
Cost Concepts or the other. Cost Accounting is primarily designed to serve the management in
its decision-making task which in turn will benefit the company and others.
Indirectly, workers, creditors, investors, customers, society and government are
benefitted by a god costing system.
NOTES
1.7 Limitations of Cost
Accounting
Besides the various advantages of Cost Accounting system, it suffers from
certain limitations which are as follows :
i) Expensive :
v) Lack of Uniformity :
vii) Analysis of cost and Financial Accounts Cost Accounts show the
profit disclose profit for the profitability, or otherwise
entire business as a of each product,
whole. It does not show process or operation
the figures of cost and so as to reveal the
profit for individual areas of profitability.
products, departments
and processes etc.
18 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Cost Concepts
viii) Duration of Reporting Financial reports are Cost Accounting is a
prepared periodically, continuous process and
usually on an annual reporting may be daily,
basis. weekly, monthly etc.
ix) Contorl aspect It does not make use of It makes use of some
any control techniques. important control NOTES
It does not control techniques such as
material and labour Standard costing,
cost. Marginal costing,
Budgetary Control etc.It
exercises control over
material cost by ABC
Analysis, level setting,
EOQ etc. and over
labour cost by
minimizing idle time,
overtime etc.
xiv) Break-up of costs Costs are not broken up The costs are analysed
according to thier nature according to thier nature
and fuctions. and functions for
further analysis and
control.
If unit is too large, significant cost trends may pass unnoticed, due to
averaging of cost. If the unit is too small, it may necessitate detailed and
expensive clerical work.
Costing means measuring the costs in relation to a unit. Hence, the unit of
measurement must be clearly defined and selected. This should be done before
ascertainment of costs. For Example, in a cement factory, the cost per tonne of
cement is found out, in a cloth mill, the cost per meter is ascertained in case of
machine, the cost per machine hour is found out etc. Thus, here tonne, meter and
machine hour become the cost units. Hence, we can say that a cost unit is
nothing but a unit of measurement of cost.
In case of a service unit, it is difficult to find out and decide a suitable cost
20 Advanced Cost Accounting - I unit. For example, in case of transport undertaking, the costs may be either
related
to the distance travelled in kilometer, or the weight carried i.e. tones. While Cost Concepts
selecting proper cost unit for the transport both factors i.e distance and weight
should be considered. Hence, tonne kilometer or passenger kilometer will be a
proper unit.
Each industry has a different cost units, some of which are given below:
i) Automobile Number
ii) Bricks Thousand
iii) Cotton/Jute Bale
iv) Chemicals Litre, Gallen, K.G., Tonne
v) Electricity KW H
vi) Furniture Number
vii) Gas Cubic meter
viii) Hostel or Hospital Room per day or per bed
ix) Mines Tonne
x) Steel Tonn
xi) Shoes e
xii) Transport Pair
xiii) Utensils Tonne km/Passenger km
xiv) Cement KG/Tonne
xv) Cable Tonne
xvi) Fertilizer Meter or km
xvii) TV/Radio/VCR Tonne
xviii) Building Set
xix) Nuts and Bolts sq.ft. or sq. mtr.
xx) Sugar and Flour Gross
Mills Quintal
xxi) Timber Cubic foot
xxii) Water Supply
Thousand
Litres/ Advanced Cost Accounting - I 21
Gallon
Cost Concepts B) Cost Centre:
Productio
n Cost
Process Centres Service
cost cost
centre centre
Types
of cost
Centres
Impersona Personal
l cost cost
centre Operatin centre
g cost
centre
A Service Cost Centre is one which provides services to the other cost
centers. Only non-manufacturing costs are charged to service cost centre.
Examples of service cost centre are canteen, machinery maintenance,
office service etc.
1.10 Summary
In order to understand the subject of Cost Accounting it is necessary to
first know the meaning and definitions of some basic terms used in the subject
of Cost Accounting. These terms include cost, costing, cost accounting and
cost accountancy, Cost means the amount of expenditure (actual or notional)
incurred on or attributable to a specified, thing or activity. Costing means
finding the cost. The techniques and processes used for calculation or
ascertainment of cost related to a product, order, job, contract, process or a
service means costing. Cost Accounting is the process of accounting for costs.
It is a branch of accounting and it is used for ascertainment, presentation and
control of costs. Cost accounting is the application of costing and cost
accounting principles, methods and techniques to the science, art and practice of
cost control and the ascertainment of profitability. It is presentation of cost
information to the management in such a way that it
A
d
v
a
n
Cost Concepts helps the managements in decision taking.
The need for Cost Accounting was realised due to the limitations of
financial accounting. Cost accounting possesses certain advantages and it also
has certain limitations. Ascertainment of cost, control of cost, determination of
selling price, to provide a basis for operating policy, help in cost reduction,
NOTES
create standards for measurement of efficiency and preparation of cost
estimates are the main objectives of cost accounting. According to the nature of
industry, the type of product and the volume of production every, enterprise has
to decide the cost unit which is nothing but the quantity for which cost is to be
calculated. Cost unit may be number, weight, square feet or square meter, etc.
Cost Centres are the sub- units of the entire organisation and the sub-units may
be sections, departments, a machine or group of machines, a person or group of
persons for which cost is collected separately so that cost ascertainment and cost
control become possible.
ii) Costing : Costing means finding out the cost incurred for a product,
service, job, process, contract or an operation.
vi) Cost Centre : Cost Centre is a location, person or item of equipment (or
group of these) for which costs may be ascertained and used for the
purposes of control.
1.12 Questions
I) Select the most appropriate answer for the multiple choice questions
given below :
(i) The profession of the cost Accounting has gained importance when the
Government of India framed cost Accounting Record Rules, -----
24 Advanced Cost Accounting - I (a) 1956, (b) 1959, (c) 1965, (d)
1968
(ii The cost journals and cost ledgers are recorded and maintained on the Cost Concepts
) basis of -------
(a) single entry principle, (b) Cost Accounting Record Rules, (c) Cost
accounting standards, (d) double entry principle
(v) Acost which will still be incurred although a plant is closed down
temporarily, is termed as----cost,
[Answers : (i) - (d), (ii) - (d), (iii) - (c), (iv) - (a), (v) - (b), (vi) - (c).
8) What is ‘Cost Unit’? State the unit of cost used at least in five
manufacturing companies.
(1) Cost Accounting has been developed out of the limitations of ---------
Accounting.
(a) management
NOTES
(b) personal
(c) financial
(d) assets
(a) direct
(b) indirect
(c) essential
(d) secondary
(3) A cost ----------- is a sub unit of organisation for which costs may be
collected separately for cost ascertainment and control.
(a) accounting
(b) centre
(c) department
(d) section
Structure
1. Introduction
3. Elements of cost
6. Division of costs
7. Classification of costs
9. Summary
11. Questions
13. Introduction
After studying the information about cost concepts in the unit 1, in this
unit you will be studying information about elements of cost. There are three
elements of cost - material cost, labour cost and expenses. Each element of cost
is divided into direct and indirect and how these direct and indirect elements of
cost are decided and how classification of costs according to the different
methods is done is also explained in this Unit. Clear and proper understanding
of costs classification is important since cost collection and presentation of
cost-data is possible only when costs classification is fully understood.
NOTES
2. Elements of Cost
The costituent elements which build up the cost of a unit are materials,
labour, energy and equipments. These elements are broadly divided into three
major groups of materials, labour, and expenses. These three elements of cost or
cost factors could then be further classified in to direct and indirect categories.
The term ‘materials’ refer to all commodities supplied to an undertaking. Labour
is an essential factor of production. It is a human resource and participates in
the process of production. labour cost is a significant element of cost of a
product or service. All costs other than material costs other than material costs
and labour costs are termed as expenses. Direct expenditure is one which is
identifiable as belonging exclusively to a particular process .product, unitary
service. Indirect expenditure is one which , while still being part of the
production ,is not incurred exclusively for a particular part of the job and must ,
therefore, be spread over the whole.
Total Cost
NOTES
Elements
Selling and
Production Administration
Distributio
n
Fig. 2.1 : Elements of Cost
Thus, elements of cost are the different items or components of cost which
are added to get the total cost of any product or service. According to ICMA,
London, Elements of Cost means, “the primary classification of costs according
to the factors upon which expenditure is incurred viz. material cost, labour cost
and expenses”.
2.2.4 Expenses
All costs other than material and labour are termed as other expenses.
According to ICMA, London, Expenses is defined as, “the cost of services
provided to an undertaking and the notional cost of the use of owned assets”.
Expenses are divided into the following :
Direct Expenses include all types of expenses other than direct materials
and direct labour which are incurred specifically for a particular product or
process. It is defined as “expenses which can be identified with and allocated to
cost centres and cost units”. Direct expenses are also known as chargeable
expenses. Direct expenses form a part of the Prime Cost, e.g. chargeable
expenses, Hire of special plant, Royalties, Cost of patents and patterns,
Engineer’s Fees, Cost of special drawings, Designs and layouts, Architect’s
fees, Direct expenses payable, Surveyor’s fees, Productive expenses
outstanding, Consultant’s fees, Process expenses due but not paid, Prime cost
expenses etc.
Check Your Progress (B) Indirect Expenses :
i) Which are the All indirect costs other than indirect material and indirect labour costs are
‘elements of cost’ ?
termed as Indirect Expenses. These expenses are not charged directly to
ii) How each element of
cost is further divided ? production. Indirect expenses cannot be allocated but they can be apportioned
iii) Explain the to or absorbed by cost centres or cost units. Examples of indirect expenses are :
differences between : rent, rates and taxes, salary of general manager, staff welfare expenses,
a) Direct Materials and
canteen expenses, telephone expenses, lighting, power, fuel, depreciation,
Indirect Materials
b) Direct Labour and insurance, bank charges and interest paid, etc.
Indirect Labour The aggregate of direct material cost, direct labour cost and direct
c) Direct Expensess and expenses is termed as “Prime Cost” while the aggregate of indirect material
Indirect Expenses. cost, indirect labour cost and indirect expenses is termed as “Overheads”.
v
Elements of Cost is the skill of any business to attract new customers by offering extra facilities
and services by giving them free samples etc. so that they get attracted to the
company. Similarly, the existing customer should be retained by providing the
best services for which certain expenses are necessary. Thus, if a concern wants
to expand its business it must incur selling expenses which cannot be avoided.
NOTES Examples of selling overheads are : salaries of the sales manager and sales staff,
commission paid to salesman and selling agents, advertising charges, packing
charges, free catalogues, pamphlets and price lists, mail order house expenses,
showroom expenses, bad debts, after sales service expenses, travelling expenses
etc.
i) Financial Incomes :
iv) Abnormals :
NOTES
Abnormal Wastage, Abnormal Idle Time, Loss by fire, Loss by Theft,
Loss of Stock, Insurance Premium, etc.
i) Prime Cost :
This is the total of Direct material, Direct labour and Direct Expenses.
v) Selling Price =
Division of Costs
NOTES
Works on Cost
Direct Material or
Factory Overheads
(+) Direct Labour Add or
(+ Direct Expenses (+) Manufacturing Expenses
)
Add
(+)
Selli
ng
and
Dist
Cost Price / Total Cost / Cost of Sales / Cost of Turnover /
ribu
Sales Cost / Net tion
Cost / Turnove Cost
AddOve
/ Less
rhea
(+)
ds
(-)
Profit / Loss
Inflated Price/Invoice Price/Selling Price/Sales/
Market Price/Value of Sales/Value of Turnover/Loaded
Price
Costs
MeaningCostand Definition : means grouping of costs according to their common
Classification
characteristics. It is the process of grouping the items together which are alike.
According to Dickey, “Classification is the process of grouping like facts NOTES
under a common designation on the basis of similarities of nature, attributes or
relations”.
The need for cost classification arises having to use cost data for a variety
of purposes. For different purposes different kinds of cost informations are
required. Therefore, costs must be arranged and classified in such a manner that
they can be combined in different ways to serve different purposes. Generally,
Cost Classification is required for the attainment of the following purpose shown
in Figure 2.3
Current
Ascertainmen
Application
t of Profits
of Plans and
Periodically
Policies
(i)
(v)
Irrelevant
y (10)
Relevanc
Relevant
Revenue
Investmen
t (9)
Pre-determined
Period
Capital
Associatio
n (8)
Uncontrollable
Product
Historical
(7)
Tim
Controllable
e
Abnormal
Fig. 2.4 : Classification of Costs
Cost classification
y (6)
Normalit
Normal
development
Research
Semi-variable
Controllabil
ity (5)
and
s
Behaviou
r (4)
distributio
Selling
Variabl
Indirect
and
n
e
ity (3)
Identifiabil
Direct
Administration
Fixed
Function
s (2)
Expenses
Labour
Factory
Material
s (1)
Element
a) Materials :
The ICMA, London defines material cost as, “the cost of commodities,
other than fixed assets, introduced into products or consumed in the operation of NOTES
an organisation. Material cost may be either direct material cost or indirect
material cost.
Direct Material Cost is defined as “the cost of materials entering into and
becoming constituent element of a product or saleable service”. Thus, materials
which can be identified with the production of a product or which can be traced
to the finished product are known as direct materials. Examples of direct
materials are cotton in cotton textile, timber in furniture making industries,
leather in shoe making industries etc.
Indirect Material Cost has been defined as, “material cost other than
direct materials cost”. In other words, material cost which cannot be identified
with a product, job or process or traceable to the same, is known as indirect
material cost. Examples of indirect materials are consumable stores such as oil,
cotton waste, small tools, works stationery etc.
But in some cases, even direct materials which can be traced to the
product concerned may be treated as indirect materials because of time and
labour involved in ascertaining their cost for the purposes of a direct charges.
For example, thread, buttons, nails, gum, metal strips etc. which are used in
production are treated as indirect although they are direct in nature.
b) Labour :
Indirect Labour Cost is defined as, “labour cost other than direct labour
cost”. Thus, indirect labour is not directly engaged in the production operations,
but only to assist or help in production operations. Examples of indirect labour
are
: salaries and wages paid to foreman, supervisors, chargeman,
inspectors, maintenance workers, clerical staff etc. working in production
department, overtime and night shift allowance paid and any other benefit paid.
c) Expenses :
2) Functions :
a) Factory Cost :
This is the cost which is incurred for the series of operations i.e. right
from the supply of materials, labour and expenses incurred till the completion
of production. Thus, materials, labour and expenses, both direct and indirect,
constitute production cost. Examples of manufacturing cost are : material,
labour, factory rent rates and taxes, depreciation on factory building and plant
and machinery, factory lighting and power , store keeping expenses, insurance
of factory building etc.
b) Administration Cost :
This is the cost running a concern i.e. for framing the policies, directing
and controlling all the activities of the organisation other than manufacturing
and selling distribution expenses. According to ICMA it defines as, “the sum of
these costs of general and management and of secretarial, accounting and
administrative services which cannot be directly related to production,
marketing, research and development function of the enterprise”. Examples of
administration cost are : Director’s fees and allowances, Salaries of office staff,
Audit fees, Legal expenses, Office rent and taxes, Office lighting , Expenses of
secretarial and accounting department, Postage and telegram, Printing and
stationery etc.
Selling costs are those costs which are incurred for attracting the potential
customers and retaining the existing customers. Thus, demand is created in the
market through advertisement and publicity so that new orders can be secured.
According to the identifiability with the cost units, jobs or processes the
costs are classified into direct and indirect. In costing, Direct and Indirect costs
have much significance.
a) Direct Cost :
All the costs which can be conveniently allocated to cost unit or cost
centre is known as direct cost. For example the cost of cotton in case of textile
industries, the cost of timber in furniture industries etc.
b) Indirect Cost :
Classification On the
of basis of
costs traceabilit
y
Indirec Production
t
materia overhead
Indirect costs l cost expenses
or Elementwise Indirec
Overhead classification t Functional Administrati
Expenses labour classification ve
cost overhead
Indirect expenses
expense Selling &
s distribution
overhead
expenses
4) Behavior :
a) Fixed Cost :
ii) increase or decrease in per unit fixed cost when volume of production
changes.
iii) fixed costs can are apportioned to departments on some equitable basis.
iv) fixed cost can be controlled mostly by the top level management.
NOTES
Examples of fixed cost are, Rent, Rates, Taxes, Insurance of factory
Manager’s salary, Office staff salaries, Municipal taxes etc.
building,
The following is the graph indicating the Behavior of fixed cost in figure 2.6.
Y
Cost ( ` )
0 Volume of Production X
(Units)
Fig. 2.6 : Behavior of Fixed
Cost
b) Variable Costs :
st
e Co
bl
aria
V
tal
To
Variable Cost per unit
Thus, Variable Costs, in general , indicate the following characteristics. Advanced Cost Accounting - I 43
Elements of Cost i) They vary in direct proportion to volume of output or
turnover.
ii) The variable cost per unit of product remains constant.
Example of variable costs are : direct material cost , direct labour cost, direct
expenses, power, repairs, royalties, commission of salesman, normal spoilage
etc.
c) Semi-variable or Semi-fixed Costs :
Semi-variable Cost
Cost ( ` )
Semi-
Cost ( ` )
variable Cost
A = Fixed Cost
B = Semi-variable cost
C= = Variable cost
0 Volume of Production (Units) X
Fig. 2.9 : Behaviour of Fixed, Variable and Semi-Variable Costs
44 Advanced Cost Accounting - I Examples of semi-variable costs are : Telephone charges, depreciation,
repairs and maintenance of plant and machinery, building, supervision, Elements of Cost
5) Controllability :
On this basis costs are classified into two types viz. Controllable Costs
and
Uncontrollable Costs.
NOTES
a) Controllable Costs :
b) Uncontrollable costs :
6) Normality :
Under this method, costs are classified according to whether these costs
are normally incurred at a given level of output in the condition in which that
level of activity is normally attained. On the basis costs are classified into
Normal Cost and Abnormal Cost.
a) Normal Cost :
b) Abnormal Cost :
7) Time :
On this basis costs are classified into Historical Cost and Predetermined
Cost.
a) Historical Cost :
It is defined as, “the costs which are ascertained after these have been
incurred”. Thus, such costs are available only when the production of a
particular
A
d
v
a
Elements of Cost thing has already been done. Such costs are only of historical value and not
useful for cost control purposes. The characteristics of such costs are :
ii) these costs may be verified with the help of supported documents,
NOTES
iii) these are objectives in nature because they relate to the past events.
b) Pre-determined Cost :
8) Association :
On this basis costs are classified into Product Cost and Period Cost.
a) Product Costs :
It is described as the costs which are directly associated with the product.
Thus, unit product is sold, these costs provide no benefit. When the products are
sold, the total product costs are recovered as an expense. This expense is called
the cost goods sold. Examples of product costs are : Direct material, Direct
labour and Factory overheads.
b) Period Costs :
9) Basis of Investment :
On this basis costs are classified into Capital Cost and Revenue Cost.
a) Capital Costs :
It is defined as, “a cost which is intended to benefit in future period”.
Capital cost is treated as purchase of an asset. Examples of capital cost are
46 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
purchase of
premises, plant and machinery, furniture etc. Elements of Cost
b) Revenue Costs :
On the basis of whether the cost items are relevant or irrelevant to the
decisions under the consideration of the management, costs may broadly be
classified into two categories as relevant costs and irrelevant costs. Check Your Progress
2.8 Summary
There are three elements of cost - material, labour and expenses. Element
of material consists of all raw materials, components, semi-finished, and finished
parts which are used in manufacturing of products or for providing services
required by the customers. The second element of cost is labour cost and it is the
amount of wages, fees and remuneration paid to the employees working in the
enterprise. Labour is provided by the employees in the form of physical labour,
intelligence, and skills required to convert the materials into a finished product
by heating, mixing, cutting, moulding, and other processes used for production.
The third element of cost is expenses and it includes all expenditure incurred -
actual or notional - excluding material cost and labour cost.
Each element of cost is divided in two parts - direct and indirect. So there
is direct material cost and indirect material cost, direct labour cost and indirect
labour cost and direct expenses and indirect expenses. When material, labour
and expenses can be easily related to the product manufactured and they form
a major or substantial part of the total cost of a product, they are recorded as
‘direct’,
A
d
v
a
n
Elements of Cost while when they form an insignificant portion of the total cost of a product and
relationship between them and the finished product cannot be easily established,
they are regarded as the ‘indirect’ materials, labour and expenses.
ii)Prime Cost : Aggregate of Direct Material Cost, Direct Labour Cost and
Direct Expensess.
iv)Cost of Production / Office Cost / Gross Cost : Factory Cost plus Office
overheads / Administration overheads / General Overheads.
vi) Selling Price / Sales : Cost of Sales plus Profit / minus Loss.
2.10 Questions
(I) Select the most appropriate answer for the following multiple choice
questions
(a) Direct
(b) Indirect
(c) Prime
(d) Essential
(b) fixed
(c) variabl
e
48 Advanced Cost Accounting - I (d) indirect
(iii Carriage on purchases is a part of direct ----cost. Elements of Cost
)
(a) labour
(b) material
(c) overhead
NOTES
(d) normal
Group I Group II
4) “Fixed costs are variable per units while variable costs are fixed per unit”.
Comment.
Structure
1. Introduction
2. Unit Objectives
NOTES
3. Cost Sheet
4. Summary list
5. Illustrations
8. Summary
9. Key Terms
12. Introduction
Cost information becomes useful only when it is arranged and presented
to the management in a systematic manner which can be grasped by the
management easily and in a very short time. Then only persons doing the
management can use it for cost controlling and for taking decisions. Cost sheet
is the first such statement which is prepared to give step-by-step information
about costs incurred by the enterprise for a certain period. In this Unit
information is provided related to preparation of a cost sheet and based on its
information, how a quotation is prepared.
A cost sheet not only shows the total cost but also the various components
of total cost. Total cost is the total cost incurred on various elements for
manufacturing and selling a product or total cost incurred for production and
sale of a certain quantity of a product or for completion of a job, order or
process. A cost sheet serves the following purposes :
i) It discloses the cost per unit as well as the total cost of output.
iv) It helps management to find out the causes of variations and take steps to
eliminate or control the factors which are responsible for increasing total
cost. It becomes possible by making comparative study of the current
costs with the past results and standard costs.
v) It enables manufacturer to keep a close watch and control over the cost of
production.
Sales - -
3.3
Summar
y List
Following is the summary list of various items of cost included in the
major group of cost and the synonymous terms used for the same in the
simplified preparation of a Cost Sheet Tender, Quotation and Estimates.
e
Add : Purchases
.g. of Materials
Add : Primary
O Packing Charges
pen
Add : Expenses for Purchases of Raw Materials, e.g. Carriage Inward,
ing
Freight Inward, Carriage and Cartage, Octroi, Duty and Customs,
Sto
54 Advanced Cost Accounting - I Excise
ck Duty, Dock Charges, Clearing charges, Forwarding Charges,
Loading
of
Ra
w
Ma
and Unloading, Transaction Charges, etc. Cost Sheet & Quotations
Viz. Direct Labour Cost, Prime Cost Labour, Direct Wages, Process
Labour, Operating Labour, Basic Labour, Productive Labour
e.g. Productive Wages, Wages paid to direct workers, Outstanding
Wages, etc.
viz. Direct Cost, Basic Cost, Operating Cost, First Cost, Productive
Cost, Flat Cost.
Viz. Cost of Sales, Cost Price, Cost of Turnover, Sales Cost, Turnover i) How Prime Cost is
Cost, Net Cost. Calculated while preparing
Cost Sheet ?
(P) Profit : ii) Mention the major cost
heads shown in Cost Sheet.
3.4 Illustrations
ILLUSTRATION 1
(a) Prime Cost, (b) Works Cost, (c) Cost of Production, (d) Cost of
Sales,
(e) Profit or Loss for the period, for six months ended 31-3-2012 NOTES
`
Cost of Materials Consumed 40,000
Oil and Waste 100
Operating Labour 9,000
Wages of Foreman 1,000
Direct Expenses 2,000
Store keepers Wages 500
Sales - Cash and Credit 1,00,000
Commission paid to the partner, Mr.Chandmal 350
Electric Power 200
Salary paid to the partner, Mr. Rajmal 650
Consumable Stores 1,000
Direct Wages Payable 1,000
Lighting :
(i) Factory Plant 500
(ii) Office Establishment 200
Carriage Outward 150
Rent :
(i) Administrative Office 1,000
(ii) Workshop 2,000
Warehouse Charges 200
Repairs and Renewals :
(i) Factory Plant 500
(ii) Machinery 1,000
(iii) Office Premises 200
(iv) Warehouse 100
Interest on Bank Overdraft 340
Advertising 400
Depreciation :
(i) Office Buildings 500
(ii) Machinery 200
Travelling Expenses 200
Office Manager’s Salary 2,250
Salesmen’s Commission and Salaries 500
Director’s Fees 500
Printing and Stationery 200
Telephone Charges 50
Postage 100
Bad Debts 450
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
Cost of Production (C) 64,000 64,000
60 Advanced Cost Accounting - I Add: Selling and Distribution Overheads : 2,000 2,000
(1) Carriage Outward 150
(2) Warehouse Charges 200
(3) Repairs and Renewals-Warehouse 100 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Working Notes :
(1) Commission paid to the partner Mr. Chandmal, salary paid to the partner
Mr. Rajmal and Interest on Bank Overdraft are the items to be excluded
from cost.
ILLUSTRATION 3
`
Royalties 1,000
Materials used in Production -Direct 12,000
Carriage on Sales 1,250
Materials used in Primary Packing 9,000
Carriage on Purchases 5,000
Materials used in Secondary Packing 1,500
Bad Debts 3,250
Materials used in Factory Workshop 750
Coal and Coke 1,750
Materials used in Administrative Office 1,250
Administration on Cost 750
Labour required in Manufacturing-Direct 9,500
General Overheads 1,000
Purchases of Raw Materials 44,000
Labour required for Works Supervision 2,500
Motive Power 1,000
Productive Wages Payable 500
Chargeable Expenses 4,000
NOTES
Particulars Amount Amount
` `
Direct Materials : 70,000
(i) Materials used in Production- Direct 12,00
(ii) Materials used in Primary Packing 0
9,000
(iii) Purchases of Raw Materials
44,00
(iv) Carriage on Purchases
0
(+)
5,000
Add: Direct Labour :
(v) Labour required inManufacturing-Direct (+) 10,000
9,500
(vi) Productive Wages Payable
(+) 500
Add: Direct Expenses : (+) 5,000
(vii) Royalties 1,000
(viii) Chargeable Expenses 4,000
(+)
(1) 85,000 85,000
Prime
6,000
Cost Add : Factory
Overheads : 750
(+) (+)
(3) 94,000
Particulars Amount
NOTES Amount
` `
Cost of Direct Materials 2,00,000
Add : Direct Wages (+)
1,00,000
Add : Direct Expenses :
50,000
(i) Cost of Special Patterns 40,00
0
(ii) Outstanding Chargeable Expenses
2,00
(iii Royalties
0
)
(+)
(+)
Prime Cost 8,000 (1) 3,50,000
3,50,000
Add : Factory Overheads
: 11,00
(i) Factory Rent and Insurance 5,00
0
0
(ii) Factory Indirect Wages
3,00
(iii) Works Indirect Material
0
(iv Genral Works Overheads
1,00
)
(+)0
Factory (2)
(+) 3,61,000
Cost 3,61,000
Add : Office Overheads
2,00
: 7,50
(i) Office Indirect Materials 5,0000
0
(ii) Postage and Telegram 2,000
(iii printing and Stationery (+)
) 500
(+)
Cost of (3) 3,68,500
Production 3,68,500
Add : Selling and Distribution
Overheads: 11,50
(i) Carriage 2,500
0
(ii) Outward Selling 4,000
(iii) on Cost 4,000
(iv Travelling Salesman’s Salary (+)
) 1,000
Bad Debts written-off (+)
Total Cost (4) 3,80,00 3,80,00
0 0
Add : Profits for the (5) (+)
20,000 20,000
years Sales 4,00,000 4,00,000
Working Notes :
(1) Calculation of percentages of profits earned to sales
If ` 4,00,000 Sales = ` 20,000 profit
100 =?
64 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
100 X ` 20,000 Cost Sheet & Quotations
=
` 4,00,000
= 5%
(2) Bad Debts recovered and Interest on Loan are the items to be excluded
from cost.
NOTES
ILLUSTRATION 5
(+)
3,600 3,000 4,800 3,600 15,000
Factory Cost (b)
1,23,600 1,03,000 1,64,800 1,23,600 5,15,000
Add :Administrative
Overheads
3,000 2,400 4,000 2,600 12,000
(+)
1,26,600 1,05,400 1,68,800 1,26,200 5,27,000
Cost of Production (c)
Add : Selling and
23,400 14,600 31,200 3,800 73,000
Distribution Expenses
(+) 1,50,000 1,20,000 2,00,000 1,30,000 6,00,000
Cost of Sales
Working
(d) Notes :
(1)Add Allocation
: Profits for of
theManagement on Cost (i.e. Administrative Overheads) on the
year of Works Cost (i.e. Factory Cost).
basis
(e)
Particulars
(+) Cots Tables Chairs Cupboards
Value of Cost
Factory Turnover ` 1,20,000 1,00,000 1,60,00 1,20,000
0
Ratio 6 5 6
8
Allocation of Administrative
Overheads 3,600 3,000 3,600
4,800
ILLUSTRATION 6
(a) Cost of Materials Consumed, (b) Prime Cost, (c) Works Cost,
(d) Cost of Production (e) Total Cost, (f) Net Profit and (g) Market Price.
`
Purchases of Materials-Cash 4,000
Establishment Overheads : 20% of Factory Cost
Wages Payable 800
Purchases of Materials-Credit 12,000
Works Overheads : 80% of Direct Wages
Cost of Special Designs 850
Clearing charges on Purchases 1,200
Productive Wages 3,200
Selling on Cost : ` 4 per unit sold
Chargeable Expenses Payable 150
Defective Materials Retuned 400
Distribution Overheads : ` 1 per unit dispatched
Trade Discount 785
During the month of April, 2012 units sold and dispatched were 1,300
units only. Also find out the market price per unit on the basis that profit mark-
up is uniformly made to yield a profit of 4% on Cost of Sales.
ILLUSTRATION 7
The following data have been extracted from the books of M/s Sunshine
Industries Ltd., Sholapur, for the calender year 2011-2012
`
Opening Stock of Process Materials 25,000
Wages - Direct 70,000
Rent and Taxes 5,500
Prepare a Statement of Cost showing profits earned during the year 2011-2012.
SOLUTION
Particulars Amount
Amount
` `
Opening Stock of Process Materials 25,00
0
Add : Purchases of Raw Materials
85,00
Add : Freight on Purchases of Raw Materials (+) 5,000
0
1,15,000
Less: Closing Stock of Process Materials (-)
35,000
Less: Defective Materials returned -
Process Materials (-) 5,00
0
Cost of Materials Consumed (1) 75,00 75,00
0 0
Add : Direct Labour : (+
75,00
(1) Wages-Direct )
0
(2) Productive Wages due but not paid 70,00
(+)
Add : Direct 0 (+ 15,00
Expenses : 0
(1) Cost of Designs and Drawings ) 5
,000
(2) Productive Expenses (+ 12,00
)
Prime Cost 0 (2) 1,65,000
1,65,000
Add : Factory Overheads 3
: ,000
(+)
(1) Rent and Taxes -
25,000
5,000
Factory (10/11 x ` 5,500)
500
(2) Indirect Materials
1,500
(3) Depreciation on Plant
and Machinery 10,00
0
(4) Wages -Indirect
5,700
(5) Other Works on Cost (+
) 2,300
(6) Works Cost
Manager’s (3) 1,90,000 1,90,000
Remuneration-Works
70 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Add : Office (+) 15,000 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Overheads :
(1) Rent and Taxes -
500
Office (1/11 x ` 5,500)
1,000
(2) Depreciation on Office
Equipments 2,500
ILLUSTRATION 8
The accounts of Dorabjee Manufacturers, Deolali for the year ended 31-3-
2012 show the following.
`
Stock of Raw Materials as on 1-4-2011 67,200
Bad Debts written-off 9,100
Raw Materials Purchased 2,59,000
Motive Power 320
Traveller’s Commission 10,780
Depreciation on Office Equipments 420
Carriage Inwards 720
Interest on Bank Loan 380
Factory Taxes 11,900
Productive Wages 1,76,400
Directors Travelling Expenses 8,400
Coal and Coke 560
General Overheads 4,760
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 71
Gas and Water - Factory 1,680
Packing Charges 940
Sales of Finished Goods 6,00,000
Manager’s Salary 15,000
Prepare a Cost-Statement giving the following details for the year ended
31-3-2012
SOLUTION
In the books of Dorabjee Manufacturers, Deolali
Cost-Statement for the year ended 31-3-2012
Following details have been obtained from the cost records of Colgate
Ltd., Kolkata for the year ended 31-3-2012
`
Stock of Operating Materials as on 1-4-2011 30,000
Wages paid to Direct Workers 55,000
Interim Dividend paid 12,000
Purchases of Raw Materials 87,000
Heating and Lighting 6,000
Counting House Salaries 20,000
Carriage and Cartage on Purchases of Raw
Materials 3,000
Commission on Sales 5,000
Wages Payable 5,000
Technical Director’s Fees 10,000
Stock of Operating Material as on 31-3-2012 40,000 Advanced Cost Accounting - I 73
Cost Sheet & Quotations Show-Room Expenses 7,000
Establishment on Cost 12,000
Share Transfer Fees 2,000
Expenses of Testing Labs. 4,000
Branch Office Expenses 8,000
After-Sales Service Expenses 8,000
NOTES
Selling Price 2,50,000
SOLUTION
In the books of Colgate Ltd. Kolkata
Cost-Sheet for the year ended 31-3-2012
Particulars Amount Amount
` `
(+)
1,20,00
Less :Stock of Operating Materialsas on 31-3-2012(-) 0
Cost of Materials 40,000 80,000
(1) 80,000
Consumed Add: Direct Labour :
60,000
(1) Wages paid to Direct Workers
55,000
(2) Wages Payable
(+) 5,000
(+)
Prime Cost (2) 1,40,000 1,40,000
Add: Factory Overheads : 20,000
(1) Heating and Lighting 6,000
(2) Technical Director’s Fees 10,000
(3) Expenses of Testing Labs 4,000
(+)
74 Advanced Cost Accounting - I (+)
Works Cost (3) 1,60,000 1,60,000
Add: Office Overheads : 40,000 Cost Sheet & Quotations
(1) Counting House Salaries 20,000
(2) Establishment on Cost 12,000
(3) Branch Office Expenses (+) 8,000
(+)
Cost of Production (4) 2,00,000 2,00,000
Add: Selling and Distribution Overheads: 20,000 NOTES
(1) Commission on Sales 5,000
(2) Show Room Expenses 7,000
(3) After Sales-Service Expenses (+) 8,000
(+)
Total Cost (5) 2,20,000 2,20,000
Add: Profit (6)(+) 30,000 30,000
Selling 2,50,000 2,50,000
Price
Working Notes :
The Following is the Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Sarabhai
Chemicals Ltd. Surat, for the year ended 31-3-2012
Dr Trading and Profit and Loss Account
. Cr. for the year ended 31st March, 2012
NOTES
Particulars ` Particulars `
You are required to prepare a Cost Statement for the year ended 31-3-
2012 showing
(1) Cost of Materials Consumed, (2) Flat Cost, (3) Manufacturing Cost,
(4) Gross Cost, (5) Cost of Turnover, (6) Profits for the year.
3,03,00
0
Less: Stockof RawMaterialson 31-3-2012 (-)
10,000
Less: Returns Outward (-)
2,000
Less: Sale of Scrap Materials (-)
1,000
Cost of Materials Consumed 2,90,000
(1) 2,90,000
Add :Direct Labour :
1,10,000
(i) Productive Wages
(+) 1,02,00
0
(ii) Wages Outstanding
(+) 8,000
10,000
Add :Direct Expenses :
(iii) Royalty 7,200
(iv) Chargeable Expenses due but not 2,800 4,10,000
paid (+)
(2) 4,10,000
Flat Cost
30,000
Add : Factory Overheads
19,000
:
11,000 4,40,000
(v) Gas and Water
(vi) Heating and (3) 4,40,000
Lighting 20,000
(+)
16,000
Manufacturing
2,000
Cost Add : Office Overheads : 4,60,000
2,000
(vii) Salaries
(viii) Property Tax on Office (4) 4,60,000
Premises 15,000
(ix) Depreciation on Office 5,000
Furniture
(+) 7,600
4,75,000
2,400
Gross 25,000
Cost
(5) 4,75,000
Add :
(6) (+) 25,000
SellingandDistributionOverheads
: Advanced Cost Accounting - I 77
5,00,000 5,00,000
(x) Carriage on Sales
(xi) Commission on Sales
(xii) Sales Depot Expenses
Cost Sheet & Quotations Working Notes :
ILLUSTRATION 11
The cost accounts of Eagle Ltd. Allahbad, for the year ended 31-3-2012
showed the following information.
Types of Stock As on 1-4-2011 As on 31-3-2012
` `
Raw Materials 65,000 50,000
Work-in-Progress 10,000 7,500
Finished Stock 15,000 5,000
`
Underwriting Commission 10,000
Purchases of Raw Materials 2,60,000
Selling Overheads 8,000
Drawing Office Salaries 12,000
Productive Labour 1,65,000
Audit Fees 7,000
Establishment on Cost 2,000
Steam, Gas and Water 1,500
Sales 5,50,000
Rent 15,000
(a) Cost of Materials Consumed, (b) Basic Cost, (c) Works Cost,
(d) Cost of Production, (e) Cost of Turnover, (f) Profit.
Particulars Amount
Amount
Stock as on 1-4-2011 Raw 65,000 ` NOTES
Add Materials Purchases of Raw (+)
`
: Materials Octroi and Duty 2,60,000
Add (+)
3,30,000
5,000
Less:
: Stock as on 31-3-
2012 Raw Materials (-) 50,00
Cost of Materials 0 2,80,000 2,80,000
Consumed (a) 1,70,000
Add: Direct Labour 1,65,00
(1) Productive Labour (+ 0
(2)
Add: Wages
Direct Outstanding
Expenses : ) 5,000
(1) Architect’s Fees (+) 10,00
Basic (b) 0 4,60,000
Cost Add: Factory 4,60,000
Overheads : 12,00 23,50
0 0
(1) Drawing Office
Salaries 1,50
(2)
Add: Steam,
Stock asGas
on and
1-4-2011 Works-in-Progress(+) 0 10,000
Water 10,00 4,93,500
0
Less:
(3) Stock 2/3 Works-in-Progress(-)
as on 31-3-2012
Rent-Factory(66 7,500
% i.e. 2/3
ofWorks
` 15,000)(+)
Cost (c) 4,86,000 4,86,000
Add: Office Overheads : 14,000
(1) Audit Fees 7,000
(2) Establishment on Cost 2,000
(3) Rent-Office (33 1/3 % i.e. 1/3 of ` 15,000) (+) 5,000
Cost of Production (d) 5,00,000 5,00,000
Add: Sellingand Distribution Overheads: 10,000
(1) Selling Overheads 8,000
(2) Distribution on Cost (+) 2,000
Add: Stock as on 1-4-2011 - Finished Stock (+) 15,000
5,25,000
Less: Stock as on 31-3-2012 - Finished Stock (-) 5,000
Cost of Turnover (e) 5,20,000 5,20,000
Add: Profits (f) (+) 30,000 30,000
Sales 5,50,000 5,50,000
Working Notes :
`
NOTES
Opening Stock as on 1-4-
2011
(i) Raw Materials 5,000
(ii) Work-in-Progress 1,200
Advertising, Bad Debts and Selling on Cost amounted to 50 paise per ton
sold. 16,000 tons of commodities were produced during the year 2011-2012.
(1) Cost of Materials Consumed, (2) Prime Cost, (3) Works Cost, (4) Cost
of Production, (5) Cost of Goods Sold, (6) Cost of Sales, (7) Profits for the
period,
(8) Profits per ton of commodity sold.
(3) Income Tax, Preliminary Expenses etc. are the items to be excluded from
Cost.
ILLUSTRATION 13
The following information has been obtained from the records of Quality
Manufacturing co. Ltd., Bharatpur, for the year ended 31-3-2012
Additional Information `
Purchases of Raw Materials 1,30,000
Wages Outstanding 3,000
Indirect Materials 12,000
Discount on issue of Debentures 8,000
Freight Inward 15,000
Property Tax on Factory Building 8,000
Director’s Travelling Expenses 8,000
Carriage on Sales 5,000
Defective Raw Materials Returned 5,000
Direct Chargeable Expenses 2,000
Workshop Rent 7,000
Expenses for participating in Industrial Exhibition 3,000
Value of Sales 3,00,000
(1) Value of Raw Materials Consumed, (2) Direct Cost, (3) Manufacturing Cost,
(4) Cost of Production, (5) Cost of Goods Sold, (6) Cost of Turnover, (7) Profit.
Also calculate the percentage of Profit on Cost Price and on Selling Price
separately.
SOLUTION
In the books of Quality Manufacturers Ltd., Bharatpur
Statement of Cost for the year ended 31-3-2012
2,37,000
Work-in-Progress as on 31-3-2012 (-) 7,000
Less :
Manufacturing Cost (3) 2,30,000 2,30,000
Office Overheads : 20,000
Add:
(1) Director’s Travelling 8,00 Advanced Cost Accounting - I 83
Expenses Postage and 0
(2)
Telegrams Miscellaneous 3,00
(3) 0
(4) Overheads Office Cleansing (+)
Charges 7,00
0 2,50,000
Cost Sheet & Quotations Add: Finished Goods- Stock as on 1-4-2011 (+) 50,000
Less : Finished Goods- Stock as on 31-3-2012 (-) 75,000
Cost of Goods Sold (5) 2,25,000 2,25,000
Add: Selling and Distribution Overheads: 15,000
(1) Carriage on Sales
NOTES (2) Expensesfor participating in Industrial 5,000
(3) Exhibition Upkeep of Delivery Vans 3,000
(4) Sales Promotion Charges (+) 1,000
Cost of Turnover 6,000
Add: Profits (6) 2,40,000 2,40,000
Value of Sales (7) (+) 60,000 60,000
Working Notes : 3,00,000 3,00,000
ILLUSTRATION 14
Jindal Cables and Conductors Ltd. Jalgaon, provides the following cost
data relating to the manufacture of a standard product during the month of
May, 2012
`
Carriage and Cartage
200
SOLUTION
In the books of Jindal Cables and Conductors Ltd. Jalgaon
Cost-Sheet for the month ended 31st May, 2012
Units Produced - 1,000 units
Units Sold -
Particulars 900 units
Total Cost Unit Cost
` `
Stock of Raw materials as on 1-5-2012 1,200
Add: Raw Materials Purchases 14,60
Add : Carriage and Cartage 0 (+)
200
Less : RawMaterials-Stock as on 31-5-2012 16,000
Less : Sale of Raw Materials Scrap (-)
2,850
Cost of Materials 13,000 13.00
(-) 150
Consumed Add: Direct Labour :
(1) 5,000 5.00
(i) Operating Wages Payable
(ii) Productive Wages
600
Add: Direct Expenses :
(+) 4,400 2,000 2.00
(iii) Hire of Special Machinery
(iv) Cost of Layout
1,500
(+) 500
Prime Cost
(+) 20,000 20.00
Add: Factory Overheads :
(2)
Works Cost 4,000 4.00
(+)
Add: Administration Overheads : 24,000 24.00
(3)
Cost of Production 2,400 2.40
(+)
Add: Stock of Finished Goods on 26,400 26.40
(4)
1-5-2012 -
(
Less : Stock of Finished Goods on 31-5- 2,640 -
2012 +)
(-) 23,760
Cost of Goods sold
Add: Selling and Distribution on Cost (5)
(900 Units x ` 3.60) 3,240 3.60
In order to obtain the order, the manufacturing concern has to prepare the
quotation in a proper way and the price mentioned in it should be a competitive
price. While preparing a quotation, the concern has to take into consideration
many factors such as the nature of work involved, the volume of work to be
completed and the type, quality and quantity of materials which will have to be
used and also the type of labour, number of workers whose services will have to
be used and labour cost to be incurred according to the rates of wages applicable
to the workers. For calculation of amount of overheads, the concern relies upon
the information about overheads available from cost sheet prepared for the
previous period. The overheads to be incurred are calculated by considering
thier relations with certain item appearing in the cost sheet. Once the total cost
88 Advanced Cost Accounting - I or cost of production is estimated for the work to be performed, the concern
adds to it the
profit amount desired by it and the price to be quoted is Cost Sheet & Quotations
finalized.
For preparation of quotation for a specific job direct materials cost, direct
labour cost and direct expenses, if any, are first determined and total of these
amounts is taken as a prime cost of the job for which the quotation is being
prepared. To the prime cost amount of Factory Overheads is added. Factory
Overheads are estimated as a certain percentage of direct labour cost and this NOTES
percentage is decided on the basis of direct labour cost and factory overheads
from the cost sheet of the previous cost sheet. When the estimated amount of the
factory overheads is added to the prime cost, the estimated amount of ‘Factory
Cost’ of the proposed job becomes available. To the factory cost amount the Check Your Progress
estimated office and administration overheads is added. Estimation of the office
i) What is meant by
and administration overheads is generally done as a percentage of office and Quotation ? Why it is
administration overheads to the factory cost of the previous period cost sheet. prepared ?
ii) Enumerate the process of
After adding the estimated amount of office and administration overheads to the preparation of quotation.
factory cost the amount of cost of production of the proposed job becomes
known. Amount of desired profit (which may be a certain percentage of the
estimated cost of production or a certain percentage of the quotation price of the
job) is added to the estimated cost of production and the total so obtained is
shown as the price to be quoted to the customer who has invited the quotations
for the job.
A specimen of quotation for a job is given below :
------------------& company
Quotation for Job No.-------
`
Direct Materials Cost ----
-
Add: Direct Labour Cost
----
Add: Direct Expenses
-
Prime Cost ----
----
-
Add: Factory Overheads -
(at --% on Direct Labour ----
-
cost) Factory Cost/Works ----
-
Cost
Add: Office and Administration Overheads ----
-
(at--% on Factory Cost) ----
-
Cost of Production
Add: Profit (at --% on cost of Production ----
-
or -- % on Price Quoted) ----
-
Price to be quoted for the job
`
Direct Materials Consumed 4,80,000
Direct Wages 6,00,000
Direct Expenses 20,000
Office & Administration Overheads 50,000
Factory Overheads 1,50,000
Selling Overheads 1,45,000
Sales 17,80,000
`
Direct Materials Cost 35,000
Add: Direct Wages 50, 000
Add: Direct Expenses 5,000
Prime Cost 90,000
Add: Factory Overheads 12,500 NOTES
(at 25% on Direct Wages)
Factory Cost 1,02,500
Add: Office & Administration Overheads 4,100
(at 4% on Factory Cost)
Cost of Production 1,06,600
Add: Profit 26,650
(at 25% on Cost of Production)
Price to be quoted for the machinery 1,33,250
Working Notes :
i) Calculation of % of Factory Overheads to Direct Wages :
Direct Wages ` 6,00,000 = Factory O.H. ` 1,50,000
Direct Wages 100 = Factory O.H.
1,50,000 X
= 100
6,00,000
= 25%
In the Quotation Direct Wages are estimated as ` 50,000
Factory Overheads are :
50,000 x 25
= ` 12,500
100
50,000 50,000 x
= 4%
100
12,50,000
Estimated Factory Cost is ` 1,02,500 in the Quotation
1,02,500 x 4
In the Quotation 4% of ` 1,02,500 =
100
` 4,100 is the amount of Office & Adm. Overheads
Stock on 30-6-2013 :
The concern is to submit a tender for supply of a large plant in the month
of July, 2013. It is estimated that direct materials of ` 20,500 and direct
wages of
` 15,000 will have to be incurred for the plant. Assuming that the percentages of
works cost to direct wages and office overheads to works cost calculates in
the
cost sheet for the period ended 30th June, 2013 will remain unchanged and the
profit desired by the concern is 20% of the tender price, calculate the price to
be
quoted in the tender.
SOLUTION
` `
Cost sheet of -------------
Stock of Materials on 1-1-2013 32,000
Add: For the
Purchase of Materials period of six months ending 30-6-2013
2,08,000
2,40,000
Less: Stock of Materials on 30-6-2013 30,000
Cost of Materials Consumed 2,10,000
Add: Direct Wages 1,50,000
Prime Cost
Add: Works Overheads 3,60,000
45,000
Works Cost
4,05,000
Add: Office Overheads
40,500
Cost of Production
Add: Stock of Finished Good 4,45,500
on 1-1-2013 34,500
4,80,000
Less: Stock of Finished Goods on 30- 48,000
6-2013 4,32,000
92 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Add: Selling Overheads 55,000 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Total Cost 4,87,000
Add: Profit 95,000
Sales 5,82,000
Calculation of Percentages :
NOTES
i) % of works overheads to Direct Wages :
Tender Price is taken as 100. Profit is 20% on Tender Price. So, Tender Price
` 100 - Profit ` 20 = ` 80 which is Cost of Production.
ii) Prime Cost : Direct Material Cost + Direct Labour Cost + Direct
Expenses.
I. Theory Questions :
`
Stock of raw materials as on 1-1-2015 40,000
Raw materials purchased during the month 5,00,000
Wages paid 2,50,000
Factory Overheads 80,000
Work-in-Progress (1-1-2015) 10,000
Work-in-Progress (31-1-2015) 20,000
Closing stock of raw materials as on 31-1-2015 30,000
Opening stock of finished goods (1-1-2015) 80,000
Closing stock of finished goods (31-1-2015) 70,000
Selling and Distribution Overheads 10,000
Administrative Overheads 25,000
Sales 10,00,000
2. M/s Strong and Weak Co., Matunga manufacture plastic buckets and
furnishes you the following particulars. You are required to prepare a Cost
Sheet for the year ended 31-12-2014, showing therein the Prime Cost,
Works Cost, Cost of Production and Cost of Sales alongwith Cost per unit
and percentage of each element of cost to total cost.
3. From the following particulars of FOX and Co. Faizpur prepare a Cost
Sheet showing :
(i) Prime Cost, (ii) Factory Cost, (iii) Total Cost of Production and (iv) Cost
of Sales for the period ended 30.6.2014.
`
Raw materials 50,000
Wages paid to workers 20,000
Direct expenses incurred for production 2,500
Consumable stores 500
Supervisor’s wages 2,000
Wages paid to floor helper 600
Electric power (Factory) 800
Electric power (Office) 500
Rent (Factory) 5,000
Rent (Office) 2,000
Repairs and Renewals on :
Plant and Machinery 5,000
Renovation of Office Building 1,000
Depreciation on Plant and Machinery 500
Depreciation on Office Building 200
Manager’s salary 3,000
Telephone charges 200
96 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Printing and Stationery 400 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Postage and Telegrams 150
Director’s Fees 800
Advertisement 800
Travelling expenses 300
Salesmen’s salary and commission 1,000
Warehouse rent 900 NOTES
Delivery van expenses 1,000
4. M/s Favourite Industries Ltd. Faizabad produce auto parts. From the
following particulars prepare Cost Sheet for the period ended 31st
December, 2014.
`
Opening Stock of raw materials 20,000
Raw materials purchased 70,000
Closing stock of raw materials 15,000
Direct Labour Cost (20% of Factory on
Cost) Factory on Cost 30,000
Administrative Overheads (10% of Works Cost)
Selling and Distribution Expenses 10,000
Details of the finished goods are as follows :
Opening stock of finished goods 2,000 units 25,000
Finished goods produced during the period 20,000 units
Closing stock of finished goods 4,000 units
You are required to find out the profit made during the year @ 10% on the
Selling Price.
Note : (i) There was no balance of opening or closing stock of work-in-
progress.
(ii) Show the working of profit ascertained.
5. The accounts of Via Manufacturing Co., Nashik for the year ended 31st
December, 2014 shows the following :
(i) Materials consumed; (ii) Prime cost; (iii) Factory on cost and the
percentage on wages; (iv) Factory cost; (v) Genral on cost and percentage
on Factory cost; (vi) Total Cost; (vii) Net profit.
7. The following details have been obtained from the cost records of
Cement India Ltd., Chennai for one month.
Stock of raw materials on 1st April 2014 75,00
th
Stock of raw materials on 30 April 0
2014 Direct wages 91,50
0
Indirect wages
52,50
Sales 2,11,000
0
Work-in-progress 1st April, 2014 28,00
2,75
Work-in-progress 30th April, 2014 0
0
Purchases of raw 35,00
0
material Factory rent,
66,00
98 Advanced Cost Accounting - I rate, power
0
Depreciation on Plant
15,00
and Machinery
0
3,50
0
Expenses on Purchase 1,500 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Carriage outward 2,500
Advertising 3,500
Office rent and taxes 2,500
Travellers wages and commission 6,500
Stock of finished goods 1st April 2014 54,000
Stock of finished goods 30th April 2014 31,000 NOTES
prepare Cost-Sheet for the month ended 30 April 2014.
th
9. The following information are received from the books of ABC Co. Ltd.,
Allahabad for the quarter ending 31-3-2014.
`
Stock of Materials 31-3-2009 75,000
Purchases of Material 7,95,000
Stock of Materials on 1-1-2009 1,05,000
Travelling Expenses 5,100
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 99
Cost Sheet & Quotations Carriage Inward 8,290
Carriage Outward 9,150
Labour Welfare Expenses 14,200
Depreciation on Plant 18,000
Factory Rent 11,200
NOTES Office Rent 29,100
Bad Debts 9,000
Productive wages 2,27,000
Traveller’s Salary and Commission 9,000
Expenses regarding purchase of materials 4,500
Director’s Fees 8,700
Fuel, Gas and Water 17,900
Manager’s Salary 18,000
\ (He devotes 2/3 of his time to factory)
Air conditioning charges of Office 9,000
Outstanding productive wages 33,000
Sales 14,29,500
Prepare Cost-Sheet giving :
(i) Prime Cost, (ii) Works Cost, (iii) Cost of Production, (iv) Total Cost
10. The following data have been extracted from the books of Sunshine
Industries Ltd., Surat for the year 2014.
`
Opening stock of raw materials 25,000
Purchases of raw materials 85,000
Closing stock of raw materials 40,000
Carriage Inward 5,000
Wages-Direct 75,000
Wages-Indirect 10,000
Other direct charges 15,000
Rent and Rates -
Factory 5,000
Office 500
Indirect consumption of material 500
Depreciation -
Plant and Machinery 1,500
Office Furniture 100
Salary -
Office 2,500
Salesmen 2,000
Other Factory Expenses 5,700
Other Office Expenses 900
Manager’s Remuneration 12,000
Bad debts written off 1,000
Advertisement expenses 2,000
Travelling expenses of Salesmen 1,100
Carriage and Freight outward 1,000
100 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Sales2,50,000 Cost Sheet & Quotations
Advance income tax paid 15,000
Cash discount 5,000
The manager has the overall charge of the company and his remuneration
is to be allocated at ` 4,000 to factory, ` 2,000 to office and ` 6,000 to
the
selling expenses.
NOTES
From the above particulars prepare a statement showing :
(i) Prime Cost, (ii) Factory Cost, (iii) Cost of Production, (iv) Cost of
Sales, and (v) Net Profit.
The net selling price was ` 31.60 per unit and all units were sold.
As from 1st April, 2014, the selling price was reduced to ` 31 per unit
and it was estimated that production could be increased in 2014-2015 by
50% due to spare capacity. Rates of Material and Direct Wages will
increase by 10%.
Using the above data prepare Cost Sheet for the year 2013-14 and
also for the year 2014-15. Advanced Cost Accounting - I 101
Cost Sheet & Quotations III. Multiple choice questions :
(1) A document which provides for the assembly of the estimated details cost
in respect of cost centre or cost unit is known as -----
(3) Cost sheet discloses the ---- as well as the total cost of output.
(4) A cost sheet, including sale and profit is also known as ‘-----Account’
(a) Trading
(c) Production
(d) Realisation
Unit 8 Pricing of
Material Issued
Unit 4 Meaning of Material and Purchasing Meaning & Purchasing
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit Objective
3. Meaning of materials
4. Types of materials
5. Purchase of materials
1. Decision of purchasing
5. Purchase Requisition
6. Selection of supplier
8. Summary
9. Key Terms
10. Questions
12. Introduction
In Unit 2, you have studied the elements of costs and have become
familiar with the three elements of costs, viz. materials, labour and expenses. In
this Unit you shall study some basic information about the first element of cost,
viz. material. Information about the meaning of material, types of material and
purchasing of material is provided in this Unit. Since material cost forms a
major portion of total cost of a product, it must be controlled effectively and
every step right from purchasing of material needs proper understanding and
attention.
• Meaning of material;
• Types of material;
1) Raw materials : These materials are used by the production department for
creating different parts by conducting specific process like cutting,
melting, grinding, mixing, heating, etc. and the parts are fitted in a specific
manner to create the final product as required by the customers. Raw
cotton, leather, timber, minerals like iron-ore, silver, gold, manganise,
copper are some examples of raw materials.
2 ) Supplies : These include items like pins, paper of wooden boxes, polish
papers, cotton waste, small tools, jigs, etc. Which are used by workers for
carrying on the production processes or for storage of the parts produced
till further operation are completed on them to convert them into finished
products.
produce each and every part used in the final product. It may purchase
some parts from outside and use them in the final product; e.g. tubes and
tires used in an automobile car may be purchased by an automobile
company from outside suppliers. In a similar way companies
manufacturing T.V. sets, refrigerators, washing machines, ratio/transistor
sets purchase a few items which are fitted in the appliances manufactured NOTES
by them.
5 ) Consumable : These are items like coal, gas, diesel, petrol, etc. Which are
needed to keep the machine and other apperatus running for carrying on
the manufacturing processes, soaps, towels, cotton-waste etc. Which are
supplied to the workers are also consumable items.
4. Purchase of Materials
In the control of materiels cost the first stage at which care is required to
be taken is purchase of materials. Efficient and effective purchasing helps in
reducing the materials cost by avoiding unnecessary purchasing, by avoiding
purchase of materials at improper prices, by doing the purchasing of the right
quantity and quality of materials, by doing the purchasing at the right time and
by doing the purchasing from the right source. Purchase of materials should be
given due attention by the management of every concern engaged in the
manufacturing filed.
1. Decision of Purchasing :
--------
Purchase Manager / Officer
Terms & Conditions overleaf.
A purchase order when accepted by the suppliers creates a legal contract
between the concern placing the order and the supplier. Therefore it must be
prepared very carefully and the supplier should be asked to acknowledge
acceptance of the order by signing and returning the second copy of the
purchase order to the concern placing the order. Five or more copies of the
purchase order are prepared in different colors. The first and second copy is
send to the supplier- the second copy is returned by the supplier as
108 Advanced Cost Accounting - I acknowledgments and acceptance of the order. The third copy is sent to the
stores department, fourth copy is sent to
the costing/accounting department and fifth copy is sent to the department from Meaning & Purchasing
which the purchase requisition was received. The second copy received back
from the supplier is retained by the purchase department and used for taking
follow-up action, if necessary.
(d) bill.
(3) Decentralised purchasing is more convenient for ----- items which are
specific to departmental.
(a) useful
(b) common
(c) uncommon
(d) day-to-day
(c) no control
II - Theory Quesitons :
(1) What do you understand from `Material’? State the meaning of ‘direct
materials’ and ‘indirect materials’ and give list of five items of direct and
indirect materials.
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit objective
3. Receipt of materials
3. Storage of Materials
1. Location of store
2. Organisation of stores
4. Summary
5. Key Terms
6. Questions
7. Further Reading
8. Introduction
In the previous unit, we have studied information about meaning, types
and purchase of materials. When as per the order given to the supplier he
delivers the materials it is to be received and its quantity and quality is required
to be checked and arrangement for proper storage of the various items of
material is done by the manufacturing concern. In this unit we shall study the
work of receipt and storage of materials and how it helps in controlling the
material cost.
9. Unit Objectives
• How checking of quantity and quality of materials received is done; Advanced Cost Accounting - I 113
Receipt & Storage • Preparation and use of documents used in connection with receipts and of
of Materials
materials;
2. Receipt of Materials
Materials are supplied by the supplier as per the purchase order received
by him. The materials and other items are packed by him as per the instructions
provided in the purchase order and they are dispatched by train or road-carriers.
In a large-scale manufacturing concern materials are received from many
suppliers and on a large-scale and so in such concerns there is a separate
‘Goods Receiving Department’ created for taking delivery of materials and other
goods. In a small size concern stores department does the work of receiving
materials. The goods receiving department is located near the entrance gate of
the premises where the work of unloading of the vehicle can be done without
causing any hindrance to other departments of the concern.
It also checks the condition of the materials and if there are damaged or
broken goods, they are kept separate and after consulting the purchase
department they may be returned to the supplier with a request for replacement
of them or if the damage is negligible the goods may be accepted. Any
difference between the quantity received, quantity ordered and quantity
mentioned in the delivery note of the supplier is immediately reported to the
purchase department so that it can take-up the matter with supplier.
As mentioned above, when the materials and other goods are delivered by
the suppliers they are received and checked in respect of the quantity and the
quality by the Goods Receiving Department/ Section. It is not sufficient to
merely take possession of the materials, check their quantity and quality but a NOTES
record of it must be duly maintained by the Goods Receiving Department.
Information about the supplier who has sent the materials, purchase order
number, description of materials received, quantity of materials and condition of
the materials, inspection report giving information about quality of materials
received are some of the important points covered by the information. Printed
forms are used as the goods received note and inspection report. Some concerns
use a single form with provision to record the quantity as well as the quality
inspection report, whereas some concerns use two separate forms one for
recording quantity and other for inspection report.
Generally three copies are prepared of the Goods Received Note. First
copy is sent to the Purchase Department to verify with the purchase order given
to the supplier and to take necessary steps for damaged sub-standard or shortage
of material supplied and for payment to be made to the supplier for the
materials accepted. Second copy is sent to the stores department or the which
has requested for purchase of the material along with the materials. Third copy
is retained as the office copy by the goods receiving department as a record.
------------------Co. Ltd.
Goods Received Note
Supplier------------------- No.--------
------------------- Date
received-----
------------------- Purchase
order no.----
Carriage/Vehicle No.--- Delivery Note
No.-----
--------------------Co. Ltd.
NOTES Quality Inspection Report
The draw-backs of the centralised storage are delay in placing orders and
obtaining the materials from the suppliers, delay in movement of materials from
the store to the production of other departments especially when they are located
at a long distance from each other, purchase of materials of inexact
specifications due to not understanding the exact requirements of a particular
department and greater risk due to storage of all materials at a central place.
Codification of materials :
There are three methods which can be used for codification of materials.
These methods are :-
The area where the materials are stored is divided in such a way that for
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 119
Receipt & Storage storage of each item of materials there is a certain area provided as per the
of Materials
requirements. Each such area used for storage of material is called a ‘bin’. So
bin can be any container, a box, a rack, a shelf, an area in a cupboard or any
other arrangement made for storage of a certain material. Depending upon the
nature of the material, size of the material, volume in which the material is to be
NOTES stored and the value and risk attached to the material where and how it should
be stored is carefully decided. Each bin is numbered and a record of bin
numbers and materials stored in them is kept on the desk of the storekeeper for
easy reference.
For every bin a document called ‘bin card’ is prepared which provides
information about bin number, description of material stored in the bin, stores
ledger number or folio, minimum level of quantity to be maintained of the
material etc. A bin card has columns for recording receipt of material, issue of
material and balance of material. Reference number of Goods Received Note
No. and Material Requisition Note No is recorded for each transaction of receipt
and issue of material from the bin and quantity in balance is shown in the
balance column of the Bin Card after every receipt and issue transaction of the
material from the bin. When the physical verification of actual quantity in bin is
done and it is compared with the quantity shown in balance column of bin card,
the date of such verification and signature of the person doing such verification
is recorded in the bin card along with remarks.
------------Co. Ltd.
BIN CARD
Material is issued from the store on the basis of Material Requisition Note
received from the production department or other departments which need the
material. Regular type of materials required for day-to-day production are
requisitioned by the supervisor by preparing and signing the Material
Requisition Note but for special, scares and valuable materials along with the
supervisor`s signature the signature of the Assistant production Manager or
production Manager is required as approval for issue of such materials. The
store clerk checks all the details given in the Material Requisition Note and if
satisfied, takes out the quantity of material from the bin and gives it to the
person who has brought the Material Requisition Note to him.
The cost office is required to make the recording for the cost of material
returned to the store. On the basis of quantity of material returned and the rate of
the material, the value of the returned material is calculated and credited to the
returned material is calculated and credited to the cost of the job from which it
has been returned. Recording in the Bin Card and store ledger Account is also
made to increase the quantity and value of material in stock.
---------------Co. Ltd
Material Transfer Note
Materials Ordered with the supplier is received from him and Goods
Received Department makes the necessary arrangements for receiving the
materials, for checking the quantity and condition of the materials. Quality of the
materials received is checked by the Inspection Section. If quantity and quality
is as per the purchase order it is accepted and Goods Received Note is prepared NOTES
and along with the materials it is sent to the stores department. Stores should be
located at a proper place which is suitable to all departments which use the
materials. A concern may use centralised stores method or de-centralised stores
method. When centralised store method is followed a separate stores-department
is created. A store-keeper or a stores manager is head of the stores department
and under him some assistants and stores clerks work in this department doing
the work of receiving , storing, issuing and protecting the various materials as
per requirement. Bin Card for each separate material is prepared in which
quantity of material received, issued and balance of quantity in the bin is
recorded date wise. Material received in the store is checked with the quantity
mentioned in the Goods Received Note and issue of material is done only
against an authorised Material Requisition Note. Recording is also made in the
Bin Card when Material Return Note and Material Transfer Note is received
from the concerned departments.
ii) Bin Card : It is Document prepared for each bin and is kept attached to
each bin. Columns provided in Bin Card are used for recording date wise
the quantity received in bin and issued from the bin and quantity in
balance column is adjusted after each receipt and issue transaction.
(b) expenditure
(c) material
(d) indirect
(a) classification
(b) codification
(c) centralisation
(d)decentralisation
Group I Group II
(2) What care should be taken by a store clerk while receiving materials in
store ?
124 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Receipt & Storage
(3) What do you understand by ‘classification’ and ‘codification’ of materials
of Materials
? State the methods used for codification of materials.
(4) Why a store is necessary ? Which documents are used for recording
receipt and storage of materials ?
(5) Explain the organisation of store. Where the store should be located ?
NOTES
(6) What is meant by ‘bin’ ? Give format of ‘Bin Card’ explaining how the
information is recorded in the columns of bin card.
(7) Give specimens of ‘Material Return Note’ and ‘Material Transfer Note’.
When these Notes are used and how recording is made in these two notes
?
Structure
1. Introduction
6. Stock taking
8. Summary
9. Key Terms
12. Introduction
Material cost forms 30% to 70% of the total cost of a product and so
efforts are required to be made to control material cost right from purchase of
materials to consumption of materials. When materials are being stored
precaution are required to be taken in handling of material, for protection of
materials from climate and theft and also in storing materials in particular
quantities. In this unit information is provided to you about the manner in which
control over materials is exercised when they are in the store.
• Which stock level are fixed and how they are fixed;
• Why stock taking is necessary and which methods can be used for fixing
stock levels;
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 127
Control Over Materials • Discrepancies in quantity of material and reasons for such discrepancies;
In Stores
and
NOTES
6.2 Control over Materials in Stores
For any business concern and especially for a manufacturing concern
material is almost equivalent to cash. A large amount of money is invested in the
stock of materials kept in the store. Material is affected by many factors such as
climate, sunshine, dust, insects and theft and its quality as will as quantity is
adversely affected and the concern is required to suffer the loss caused by this.
So it is necessary that proper control on the materials should be kept to
eliminate or minimise the loss when the materials are in the stores department.
By giving attention to the following points proper control on materials can be
kept :-
1. While receiving the materials from the Goods Receiving section at the
entrance of the stores it should be physically counted, measured or
weighed and the quantity should be verified with the quantity mentioned in
the Materials Received Note. Attention should also be given to the
condition of the materials received.
3. While keeping the material in its proper bin it should be kept in such a
way that old stock in the bin is kept ahead and newly received material is
kept in the back. This enables issue of old material first and newly
received material later on. This is necessary when quality of material is
adversely affected due to passage of time.
For each material the stores department has to fix certain levels. They
include Maximum Level, Minimum Level, Re-Ordering Level and Danger Level.
It is also necessary to determine how much quantity should be ordered when for
a material fresh order is to be placed. Quantity to be ordered depends upon the
maximum and minimum consumption of the material, maximum and minimum
period required for receiving the material from the supplier after an order is
placed with him, the price per unit of material, changes expected in the price and
availability of material in the near future, the discount and other facilities
offered by the supplier for different size orders and the capital available with
the concern for investment in the stock of materials. Once the order quantity is
fixed generally it remains unchanged unless some major changes in the price of
material or in the availability of the material in the market are expected to take
place. When a material is available only in a certain season and it is consumed
throughout the year quantity to be ordered will naturally be a large quantity.
Economic order quantity is, therefore, such quantity per order which
balances the cost of ordering with the cost of carrying inventory. At economic
order quantity the total cost made up of cost of ordering and cost of carrying
inventory is lowest.
expressed as 0% p.a.
ILLUSTRATION
Arun Co. Pvt. Ltd. manufactures a certain product and uses a particular
material in the manufacturing process. Annual consumption of this material is
20000 units. The cost price per unit is ` 2.50 and buying cost per order amounts NOTES
to ` 100. The cost of carrying the inventory is 10 % per annum.
SOLUTION
i) Formula method :
Where A = 20,000 unit
EOQ =
2AB
Ci B = ` 100 per order
= ` 2.50 per unit
C = 10% p.a.
i
Therefore EOQ =
2 X2.50
20000 X 100
X 10 %
=
4000000
.25
=
=
16000000
4000 units
At EOQ units the total cost is ` 1000 made up of ` 500 as buying cost
and ` 500 as the carrying cost. Figures in the total column show that ` 1000 is
the lowest cost and at this economic order quantity level the buying cost and the
NOTES
carrying cost are equal. When quantity per order is more than 4000 units or less
than 4000 units the total cost is more than ` 1000.
First stock level to be fixed is the re-order level because for fixing
maximum and minimum stock level information of re-order level is needed.
When stock of material in hand reaches the re-order level fixed for the
material an order is placed with the supplier. It is fixed at that level which
enables the stores department to supply the material to the production
department even if maximum consumption takes place and maximum period is
taken by the supplier to deliver the material for the order placed with him.
Stoppage of production due to non availability of material in stock is, thus,
avoided by fixation of re-order level.
Average stock level indicates the average quantity carried for a material
and such level is calculated by the following formula :-
Maximum level + Minimum level
Average stock level =
2
ILLUSTRATION 1
Normal 3 Weeks
Maximum 5 Weeks
ILLUSTRATION 2
ILLUSTRATION 3
Two components ‘A’ and ‘B’ are used in Swastic Industries, Pune as follows :
n
Control Over Materials SOLUTION
In Stores
(a) Reorder Level = MX . C x MX . RP
= Maximum usage per week x Maximum re-order
period in weeks
NOTES Component A’ = 225 units x 6 weeks = 1,350 units
Component B’ = 225 units x 4 weeks = 900 units
(b) Maximum Level = RL + RQ - (MN . C x MN . RP)
= Reorder Level + Reorder Quantity - (Minimum
Usage per week x Minimum reorder period in
weeks)
Component A’ = 1,350 units + 900 units - (75 units x 4 weeks)
= 2,250 units - 300 units = 1,950 units
Component B’ = 900 units + 1,500 units - (75 units x 2 weeks)
= 2,400 units - 150 units = 2,250 units.
(c) Minimum Level = RL - (A.C X A.RP)
= Reorder Level - (Normal usage per week x
Normal reorder period in weeks)
Component A’ = 1,350 units - (150 units x 5 weeks)
= 1,350 units - 750 units = 600 units
Component B’ = 900 units - (150 units x 3 weeks)
= 900 units - 450 units = 450 units
(d) Average Stock Level = MN.L+1/2 of Reorder Quantity
DeliveryQuantity
Reorder period : :21,000
to 4 months
units
Calculate : (1) Reorder Level, (2) Maximum Level, (4) Average Stock
Level using reorder quantity.
SOLUTION
Working Notes :
ILLUSTRATION 5
The following information is available in respect of a
material.
SOLUTION
= units
ILLUSTRATION 6 875 units.
Find out Reorder Level, Maximum Level, Minimum Level and Average
Stock Level from the following particulars :
Normal Consumption : 300 units per
Maximum day
= 2,700 units + 1/2 x 3,600 units = 2,700 units + 1,800 Advanced Cost Accounting - I 139
units
= 4,500 units
Control Over Materials ILLUSTRATION 7
In Stores
(a) The availability of an imported machinery component is irregular and
consequently the consumption pattern also varies during the year. Show
how should the ‘Reorder level’ be ascertained for this component.
NOTES (b) From the following annual data, compute the ‘Average Stock Level’ for
the said component.
Particulars Consumption
(i) Maximum usage in a month 300 Nos.
(ii) Minimum usage in a month 200 Nos.
(iii) Average usage in a month 225 Nos.
Time lag for procurement of material :
(i) Maximum - 6 months
SOLUTION
1) Clerical errors made by the persons who have done recording in these
documents. Errors may have been committed while adding or substracting
the quantity received or issued respectively due to which quantity of
material in balance is recorded wrong.
4) Recording of the quantity received or issued may have been done in wrong
column in one of the documents due to which quantity shown in balance
column of that document becomes wrong.
By finding out the reason / reasons due to which the difference in the
stock of the two documents is caused and by rectifying these errors the stock
shown in the bin card and the stores ledger account is tallied.
According to the size of the concern, number of items kept in the store,
volume or quantity of each item of material, nature of the materials and the
number of transactions of receipt and issue of the materials one of the above
mentioned methods is selected and used for physical stock taking.
2. As the work of stock taking is done by workers and other employees the
result of physical stock taking may not be satisfactory and reliable.
3. When continuous stock taking method is used the working of plant and
production department is not required to be stopped for stock taking. Loss
of production due to stoppage of production work is thus avoided in this
method.
5. Information about the total quantity in stock for all the items can be
quickly found out by adding the quantities reported by the stock takers.
Only the quantity received and quantity issued since the last date of stock
taking will have to be added and substracted respectively to the last
quantity reported and this enables the management to know the quantity
and value of materials and other items on any day the information is
needed by it.
7. Stock taking work and receipts and issues of materials take place
simultaneously and so the work of stock taking is disturbed and quantity
of material in stock cannot be exactly found out.
Whichever method is used for physical stock taking it should be
remembered that the actual quantity of material found in stock should be
compared with the quantity recorded in the bin card and the store ledger Advanced Cost Accounting - I 145
account as quantity
Control Over Materials in balance and any difference should be accounted for by finding out the
In Stores
difference.
When physical stock taking of materials is done and the actual quantity of
the materials is found out it is compared with the quantity in balance in the bin
cards and the store ledger accounts of the particular material. If actual quantity
of material in store is not same as the quantity shown in the balance column of
the bin card and the store ledger account, the difference in the quantity is noted
down as a case of discrepancy. The cause of discrepancy is then found out and
according to the nature of it, the treatment to be given for the quantity and value
of the difference in material is decided. Discrepancy can be of two types-actual
quantity in store is less than the quantity appearing in the bin card and store
ledger account. The first type of discrepancy is known as shortage which
implies loss and the second type of the discrepancy is known as excess or
overage and it is a surplus or gain.
5. Calculation errors done by the store clerk while arriving at the quantity in
balance.
Treatment of discrepancies :
10. When the stock recorded as per bin card and store ledger account is more
than the actual stock as per physical stock taking, the following entry is
passed:
..........
If the shortage of stock can be divided as caused by normal reasons and
caused by abnormal reasons such as theft, misappropriation, fire, etc., the
Inventory adjustment account is debited with the loss due to normal causes,
Costing Profit and Loss Account is debited with the loss/shortage caused by
abnormal reasons and total credit is given to Material and Supplies Account.
A
Control Over Materials
In Stores
For the quantity and value of the shortages a recording is made in the
issue column of the store ledger account and quantity and value is reduced in
the balance column of the store ledger account. In the bin card also recording
for shortage quantity is made in issue column and quantity in balance column
is reduced accordingly.
NOTES
If discrepancy is of a negligible quantity and value no entries are passed
for
its treatment and the recording appearing in the bin card and store ledger
account is taken as correct.
SOLUTION
` 1 Cost of placing an order :
` 50
EOQ =
2 CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
Calculate the Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual need in unit i.e.
1,600 units O = Cost of placing an order
i.e. ` 50
C = Inventory carrying cost including Rent,
Insurance, Tax per unit per year i.e. 10% of `
30
= ` 3 + `=1 =2` X41,600 units X `
10% of ` 30 + ` 1
50
=
`1,60,000
3+` 1
units
=
1,60,000
`4
units
SOLUTION NOTES
EOQ =
2 CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual usage in terms of units i.e.
10,000 units O= Cost of processing a purchase order
i.e. ` 10 C = Stock holding cost i.e. 20% of ` 25 =
` 5
=
2 X 10,000` 5units X ` 10
=
2,00,000 units
` 5
=
= 40,000 units 200 units
Conclusion : The Company should buy 200 units in a single order at a time,
to minimise the inventory cost.
ILLUSTRATION 3
Given the annual consumption of material is 1,800 units, ordering cost are
` 2 per order, price per unit of material is 32 ps. and storage cost are 25% p.a. of
stock value, find the Economic Order Quantity.
SOLUTION
EOQ =
2C
AO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual consumption of material in units i.e.
1,800 units O = Ordering cost per order i.e. ` 2
C = Storage cost per unit i.e. 25% of 32 ps. = `
0.08
=
2 X 1,800 units X ` 2
25% of 32 ps.
=
7,200
` 0.08
units
=
90,000 units
NOTES
ILLUSTRATION 4= 300 units
SOLUTION
EOQ =
2CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual
requirements in units i.e. 1,600
units
O = Cost of placing and receiving one order i.e. `
200 C = Inventory carrying cost i.e. 10% of ` 40 = ` 4
=
2 X 1,600 units X ` 200
10% of ` 40
=
6,40,000 units
` 4
= 400 units
= 1,60,000 units
ILLUSTRATION 5
EOQ =
2CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual demand in units i.e. NOTES
4,000 units O = Ordering cost per order i.e. `
5 0.16
C = Inventory carrying cost i.e.
=
8% of ` 22=X`4,000 units X ` 5
8% of ` 2
= 40,000 units
` 0.16
=
2,50,000 units
=
SOLUTION
EOQ =
2
where,AO
C
EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual requirements in units i.e.
12,000 units O = Order cost i.e. ` 200
C = Inventory carrying charges i.e. 20% 1.20
of ` 6 = `
= 48,00,000
` 1.20
units
= 40,00,000 units
= 2,000 units
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 151
Control Over Materials ILLUSTRATION 7
In Stores
You are required to calculate Economic Order Quantity from the
following information.
EOQ =
2CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual consumption in kg. i.e.
15,000 kg. O = Cost of placing an order i.e. `
48
C = Storage cost i.e. 8% of ` 2 = `
0.16=
2 X 15,000 kg. X ` 48
8% of ` 2
=
14,40,000 kg. =14,40,000 kg. X 100
` 0.16
16
= 3,000 kg.
ILLUSTRATION 8
= 90,00,000 kg.
SOLUTION
EOQ
=
2CAO
where, EOQ = Economic Order Quantity
A = Annual usage in units i.e.
50,000 units O= Order placing cost i.e. ` 45
C = Inventory carrying cost i.e.
15% of ` 1.20 = ` 0.18
=
2 X 50,000 units X ` 45
15% of ` 1.20
152 Advanced Cost Accounting - I =
45,00,000
` 0.18
units
Control Over Materials
= 45,00,000 units X
In Stores
100
18
= 2,50,00,000 units
= 5,000
units
NOTES
7. Summary
Material is received at the entrance of the stores department and the
person receiving it should check the quantity of material with the quantity
mentioned in the Materials Received Note. Material is taken to the bin allotted
for that material. Material already in the bin is kept in the front side of the bin
and new material received in the back side of the bin so that old material is
issued first and new material remains in the bin. Personnel working in the stores
department should be given proper training for handling of the material and use
of different weighing machines correctly. For each material Maximum Level,
Re-ordering Level, Minimum Level and Danger Level are fixed by considering
the use of material, time required for obtaining material and quantity of material
purchased at one time. Economic Order Quantity is calculated for each
material. To verify the quantity and quality of material in bin stock taking
arrangement is made. Periodic stock taking and Perpetual or Continuous stock
taking are the methods which can be used for stock taking. Stock taking helps
in locating discrepancy between physical stock in the bin and quantity shown in
the Balance column of the Bin Card. Reasons for discrepanies are found out and
suitable treatment is given for the discrepancy.
8. Key Terms
EOQ : Economic Order Quantity is that quantity of a material by ordering
which the total of purchasing and carrying the the stock of material is kept at
optimum level.
(a) minimum
(b) maximum
(c) ordering
(d) danger
2. EOQ model is based on assumption of ----------
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 153
Control Over Materials (a) linearity
In Stores
(b) safety
(c) abnormit
y
NOTES (d) security
3. Recorder point is lower than the ---------- levels to avoid excess stock.
(a) minimum
(b) maximum
(c) danger
(d) stock
(a) re-order
(b) danger
(c) maximum
(d) minimum
(1) Why Control over materials is needed when the materials are being stored
in the stores? Which factors should be given attention while exercising
such control ?
(2) Which stock- levels are fixed for materials ? What purpose is served by
the stock-levels fixed ?
(4) State the stock-levels which are fixed for the materials. Give formulas
used for calculating the various stock-levels.
(5) What do you understand by the term ‘stock-taking’ ? Which methods are
used for stock-taking ?
(8) What you understand by the term ‘discrepancy in stock’ ? What are
154 Advanced Cost Accounting - I causes of such discrepancies ?Explain treatment given to discrepancies
in stocks.
III. - Exercises Control Over Materials
In Stores
1. From the following particulars
calculate :
a) Re-order Level, b) Minimum Level and c) Maximum Level
Normal usage 100 units per day
Minimum usage 60 units per day NOTES
Maximum usage 130 units per day
E.O.Q. 4,000 units
Re-order period 25 to 30 days
d) Re-ordering Level.
each
a) Re-order Level
c) Maximum Level
a) Re-order Level,
Re-order period 4 to 6
a) Re-order Level
b) Minimum Level
d) Average Level
E.O.Q. 5,000
units
a) Re-ordering level, b) Maximum level, c) Minimum level, d) Danger
Re-order
stock level, e)period
Average stock level 25 to 30
days
The re-ordering quantity is to be calculated from the following data :
7. You have been asked to calculate the following levels for Part No. ‘T’
from Total costs of purchasing
the following relating to the order are ` 20.
information.
156 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
No. of units to be purchased during the year is 5000. Control Over Materials
In Stores
Purchase price per unit including transportation costs is ` 50.
9. Economic
From Orderparticulars, calculate
the following 4,000 units
the economic order
quantity. Quantity
Annual requirements : 1,600 units
Cost of materials per units : ` 40
Cost of placing and receiving one order : ` 50
10. A unit of article A costs ` 50 and the annual consumption is 2,000 units.
The cost of placing an order is ` 40 and the interest is 10% per annum.
find the economic order quantity.
11. From the following figures, you are required to calculate Economic Order
Quantity and No. of orders to be placed per year.
13. Find out the economic order quantity from the following
15. Given : Annual usage of a material 600 units, ordering costs are ` 12 per
one order, price of material is ` 20 per unit, and cost of storage is 20% of
inventory value, find out EOQ.
16. Suppose the annual consumption is 675 units, 10% is the interest and cost
of storing an article ` 30 per unit, cost of placing an order is ` 18.
Calculate the Economic Order Quantity.
17. A factory requires 15,000 units of a certain material for the year. Cost of
carrying one unit of material is calculated to be ` 20 per annum, and it is
estimated that the expenses of placing an order and receiving would
amount to ` 375. Calculate Economic Order Quantity.
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit Objectives
3. Issue of materials
7. Summary
8. Key Terms
9. Questions
7.0 Introduction
Materials are purchased and kept in stores because they are needed by
production departments for processing and for completing operations necessary
for manufacturing finished products. Materials demanded by production and
other departments must be issued to them by stores department so that their
work is not held up. In this Unit information related to issue of materials and
care to be taken while performing this work is provided.
The rule of issuing any material from the stores only against valid
material requisition note should be strictly followed by the persons working in NOTES
the stores department and after issue of material recording of it in the bin card
and recording of the new balance in the balance column of the bin card should
be completed immediately by the concerned stores clerk. Similarly recording
of the issue transaction (quantity and value) in the appropriate columns of the
stores ledger account and recording of changed quantity and value of stock in
the balance column of the stores ledger account should be completed by the
accounts/costing department to avoid the possibility of omission of recording of
the transaction in the stores ledger account.
There are three documents which are related to issue of materials. They Check Your Progress
are :
i) Give Specimen of :
a) Materials Requisition
1. Materials Requisition Note, Note
b) Stores Ledger Account
2. Bin Card, and
ii) What care should be taken
while issuing materials
3. Stores Ledger Account. from the stores ?
Out of these three documents the ruling of the Bin Card has already been
provided in the previous Unit. The specimen of Material Requisition Note and
Stores Ledger Account are given below :
----------------------& Co.
Reference No. under Issues is the Material Requisition Note No. After recording
the receipt of material the quantity in the balance column is increased and after
recording the issue of material the quantity in balance column is reduced by
deducting the quantity issued from the preceding quantity appearing in the
balance column.
NOTES
In the stock verification column the date on which the physical stock taking
is done and any difference (shortage or surplus) found in comparison to the stock
recorded in the balance column on that date is recorded with the initials of the
person who has done the physical stock taking. Information in ‘rate’ and
‘Amount’ columns is recorded by Costing Dept.
iii Store clerk who does the work of materials issue should understand the
) nature of material to be issued, code number of the material to be issued
and quantity in which material is to be issued. This enables him to issue
the exact material to be issued and issue of wrong material does not take
place.
iv) While taking out the material from the bin, the store clerk should take the
material from the old lot, keeping recently received material in the bin.
This results in issue and use of the old material and helps in avoiding
deterioration in quality of old material.
v) The store clerk should check that the weighing machine or other
instruments used for measuring quantity of material are in proper
condition and would enable him in issuing the correct quantity as
mentioned in the Material Requisition Note.
vi) Proper and careful handling of material as per its nature is another point
to which the store clerk should pay attention. This helps in avoiding
breakage and loss of material when it is being removed from the bin and
when it is being carried to the stores entrance for issue.
vii While handing over materials to the person who has brought the Materials
)
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 163
Issue of Materials Requisition Note the store clerk should instruct him to check the quantity
and condition of the materials and to sign the Note for the materials
received by him. It acts as a proof of issue of materials.
viii On the basis of M. R. Note, the store clerk should do the recording in the
) Bin Card for quantity of material issued and record the quantity in the
NOTES
balance column of the Bin Card by deducting the quantity issued from the
previous quantity recorded in the balance column.
6. Summary
Issue of materials is done by store clerks working in the stores department
to production departments and other departments which need materials for
performing their activities. For obtaining materials a written request in the form
of Material Requisition Note is required to be prepared by the section or
department which needs the material. Details such as name/number of the
section or department which is requesting issue of materials, M.R. Note
number, date, job/process/ operation for which materials are required,
description and code of material required, quantity, quality/specification, etc. are
required to be filled in and signatures of person who has prepared the M.R.
Note, who has sanctioned it and if necessary of the production or factory
manager are required to be obtained before the copies of the M.R. Note are
presented at the entrance of the stores department. For issue of materials a
procedure is laid down in each concern and it is strictly followed by the persons
involved in the activity of issue of materials. Attention is given to various
factors connected with issue of materials. Materials Requisition Note, Bin Card
and stores Ledger Account are the documents in which information is recorded
regarding issue of materials. Issue of materials is as important as the activities
of purchase of materials and storage of materials.
7. Key Terms
8. Questions
I - Multiple Choice Questions.
1. Material Requisition Note is the document related to ------- materials.
(a) accounting of
(b) issue of
(a) supervisor
(b) material manager
NOTES
(c) works manager
(d) storekeeper
(a) duplicate
(c) triplicate
II - Theory Questiions
3) What care should be taken while issuing materials from store ? Why such
care is necessary ?
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit objectives
5. Summary
6. Key Terms
8. Further Reading
9. Introduction
In Unit 7, we have studied information about issue of materials + stores
to various departments which use the materials. In order to calculate cost of the
materials used for jobs, operations, processes and other purposes it becomes
necessary to calculate the cost of materials used for them. Information about
work of pricing of materials issued, methods used for pricing the issue of
materials is provided in this Unit.
• Understand methods which can be used for pricing the issue of materials ;
and
• Know the effect on material cost when a particular method of pricing the
issue is used by an enterprise.
i) Standard Price
According to the method selected for pricing of issues the amount charged
for the issues and the amount of quantity in balance ( closing stock value ) will
be different. Out of the above mentioned methods only FIFO, LIFO, Simple
Average, Weighted Average and Base Stock Method are the methods on which
168 Advanced Cost Accounting - I the practical problems are given below. For other methods only theoretical
information is given.
A. Cost Price Methods Pricing of Material Issued
Advantages
1) Under FIFO method the pricing of issue is done at the cost price and so
there is no unrealised profit or loss.
2) Issues are priced at the old purchase price and so this method follows the
rule of old materials to be issued first and latest purchases should be kept
in stock.
3) This method is suitable when the market shows falling price trend for the
material since high prices of the earlier purchases are charged to the
production and closing stock is valued at the current price which is low.
Disadvantages
5) FIFO method is not suitable when the material price shows a rising trend.
Material cost charged to the production is less and closing stock of
material is valued at current high price.
6) Material cost of two same jobs using the same quantity of material may be
different merely because material issued to them is from different lots
purchased at different prices. Proper comparison of the cost of two same
jobs does not become possible.
ILLUSTRATION
2013
Prepare Stores Ledger Account Pricing the issues using First In First
FIFO method
S R Company
No.
400 10 4000
Issue on July 4 of 500 units is priced at ` 8 per unit because this issue is
made out of the opening stock of 800 units, rate being ` 8 each. Issue of 400
units made on July 12 is from the first last of 300 units @ ` 8 each and 100
units are issued from the next lot @ ` 9 each. Total cost of material issued is,
therefore, NOTES
` 3300.
Issue of 200 units on 15 July is made out of stock which is valued @ ` 9
per unit. Issue of 800 units on July 28 is made from 300 units @ ` 9 and
remaining 500 units are issued out of the lot of 700 units which was purchased
@ ` 9.50 per unit.
[In this illustration all columns of Stores Ledger Account are shown. In
the subsequent illustrations. Only columns related to quantity, rate and amount
will be shown to save the space.]
Advantages :
3) In the increasing price trend shown by the market this method is suitable
since issues are priced at the current prices which are high and high price
of material is immediately recovered by charging it to the production.
4) In the situation of rising prices the quantity in stock is valued at the old
low prices and so the closing stock value is shown less. This agrees with
the principle of valuation of closing stock to be done at cost or market
price whichever is less.
Disadvantages :
1) When there are large number of transactions of receipts and issues the
recording and calculations increase and the possibility of errors increases.
2) During the period of falling prices, the material cost of production will Advanced Cost Accounting - I 171
be
Pricing of Material Issued shown less whereas that production has been done by using the material
purchased earlier at high prices.
3) Comparison of costs of two similar jobs using same material in same quantity
may give misleading results merely because material issued to them is
from two different lots purchased at different prices.
NOTES
ILLUSTRATION
2013
4 500 8 4000
400 10 4000
Closing stock of material at the end of July, 2013 is 600 units consisting
of 300 units @ ` 8 and 300 units @ ` 9.50. The value of closing stock is ` 2400
+
` 2850 = ` 5250. Under the FIFO method of pricing the issues the value of
closing stock was ` 5900.
Under LIFO method closing stock consists of 300 units @ ` 8 each, which
are from the opening stock of 800 units.
20 9 180
Under LIFO method of pricing the recording for the above transaction will
be done on July 22 by valuing the returned material at ` 9 each because on July
12 the material was issued to the job from a single lot which was priced at ` 9
each. The recording for the transaction of return of material will, therefore,
remain same as shown for FIFO method above.
a
Pricing of Material Issued Date Receipts Issues Balance
2013
NOTES
July 31 10 9.50 95 190 9.50 1805
400 10 4000
Under LIFO method of pricing the issues, the recording for shortage of 10
units will be done as under :-
2013
In this method the pricing of issue is done at the highest purchase price
shown in balance column upto the date of issue. When the lot having the highest
price is fully exhausted by the issues, the next highest price is used for pricing
the subsequent issue. In this method production/ jobs are charged with the
highest price of purchase of material and recovery of the material purchased at
highest price is done first and valuation of material in stock is done at low
prices. The value of closing stock is shown less than its real value and thus by
reducing the profit amount for the period a secret reserve is created by the
concern.
HIFO method of pricing the issues is not popular and a few concerns may
be using this method.
i) Simple Average :-
NOTES
In this method the pricing of issues is not done at the actual cost price but
at simple average of the prices at which materials are purchased prior to the
issue date. If the quantity of the previous purchases is exhausted, then the
simple average of prices of subsequent purchases is calculated and at that
average price issue of materials is priced. For calculation of simple average
following formula is used :
Total of Prices
No of prices
If purchases have been made at ` 10. ` 12 and ` 11 per unit prior to issue
of material, the simple average of the prices will be
` 10 + ` 12 + ` 11 ` 33
=
= ` 11 and
3 3
The disadvantage of this method is that issue of material is not priced not
at the cost price but at a price which is totally different from cost price. Along
with this since quantity purchased at each price is not considered the price
charged may give an absurd result. From the following example this points
should become clear :
profit or loss is likely to take place when simple average method is used for
pricing the issues.
ILLUSTRATION
2013, March
SOLUTION
B Ltd.
Stores Ledger Account
(Simple Average
Method)
Date Receipts Issues Balance
Qty Rate Amt Qty Rate Amt Qty Rate Amt
` ` ` ` ` `
2013
Mar,1 250 20 5000
3 400 19 7600 250 20 5000
400 19 7600
7 500 19.50 9750 150 2850
10 700 18 12600 850 15450
12 300 20 6000 1150 21450
23 200 19 3800 950 17650
27 450 19 8550 500 9100
At the weighted average price the pricing of material issued is done. The
new weighted average is required to be calculated after each purchase
transaction but on issue of material new weighted average is not to be
calculated.
Advantages :
2) In this method weighted average changes only with the fresh purchases
and new weighted average is not calculated for the issue transaction. This
reduces the calculation work considerably.
3) As along with purchased price the quantity purchased at that price is also
considered the fluctuations in prices and in quantities purchased are ruled
out and the weighted average price gives a better result.
178 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
4) Valuation of stock is more realistic in this method because the extreme Pricing of Material Issued
Disadvantages : NOTES
1) For accuracy purpose, the weighted average price is required to be
calculated upto 4 or 5 decimal points and calculation at such weighted
average for pricing the issues creates difficulty.
ILLUSTRATION
2012 Aug.
Assuming that the company follows Weighted Average Method for pricing
the issues, prepare Store Ledger Account.
In this method simple average of the purchase prices is calculated for all
the prices for all the prices for a fixed period which may be one month or 4
months or 6 months and the periodic simple average so calculated for pricing the
issues made in the subsequent period. If the period fixed is one month, the
simple average of all receipt prices is calculated and the periodic simple
average so calculated for pricing the issues made in the next month. If period
fixed is six months, the receipt prices in the six months period are used for
calculating the periodic simple average and it is used for pricing the issues
made in the subsequent period. In this method quantity of material purchased at
different prices is totally ignored and so the disadvantages of simple average
method also become applicable to the periodic simple average method. As
periodic simple average calculated is used for pricing the issues of next period
the method does not charge the issues at the current prices.
This method is similar to the periodic simple average method but in this
method, the periodic weighted average is calculated by considering the quantity
purchased at each price. In this method also the periodic weighted average
180 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
calculated for a fixed period is used for pricing the issues made in the subsequent Pricing of Material Issued
period.
The periodic simple average method and the periodic weighted average
method are used for pricing the issues in a very few concerns.
In this method pricing of issues is not done at the cost price or average
price. For a period a standard price or a pre-estimated price is fixed and the
issues are priced at this standard price of pre-estimated price. While fixing the
standard price various factors like current price, fluctuations in price expected in
near future, quantities normally purchased, discount available with a quantity
purchased, transport and other costs related to the material, etc. are considered
and accordingly a price is fixed as a standard price. All issues made during the
period are priced at the standard price. In the balance section quantity in
balance after receipt of material and issue of material is shown and its value is
shown by adding the value of receipt and by deducting the value of issued
material to the previous stock value. The value of closing stock is more or less
as compared to the actual cost and such variance is either favourable price
variance or unfavorable price variance and treated separately.
Advantages :
1) Since pricing of issues is done at the standard price the material cost of
jobs can be compared and difference in material cost of two similar jobs
shows efficiency or inefficiency in the use of material for them.
Disadvantages :
4) Actual cost of material used for a job or production order is not shown in
the standard price method. So this method becomes suitable only when
standard costing is followed in the entire concern.
Inflated price =
Value of material purchased
Net Weight
` 36,000
=
360 Liters
= ` 100 per litre
When 360 liters of material from this lot is issued the price will be
charged at ` 100 per litre and thus the full value of material purchased is
recovered from issue of the material and loss due to reduced quantity is fully
recovered.
iii Proper procedures should be laid down for each activity connected with
) the materials. Except in emergency situation the procedures should be NOTES
strictly followed.
vii By making stock-taking arrangement the quantity as per records and the
) actual quantity should be compared and proper re-conciliation between
these two quantities should be made. If possible, internal audit system
should be followed for verification of materials and for detecting and
reporting any loss, damage, theft and slow-moving, obsolete and
adversely affected materials.
viii Fixation of stock levels and deciding the economic order quantity for each
) item of material also helps in controlling materials cost.
8.5 Summary
Materials issued from the stores to a particular job, order, process or
operation are required to be priced and this work is done by accounts or costing
department of the enterprise. This is necessary in order to calculate total
material cost of a job, order, process or operation. There are various methods
available for pricing the materials issued such as ‘cost price methods’, ‘average
price methods’ and ‘notional price methods’. These methods provide further
certain methods out of which a particular method is selected by the enterprise
for pricing for materials. For example, under cost price methods there are First
In First Out (FIFO), Last In First Out (LIFO), Highest In First Out (HIFO) and
Base Stock Method. Each method possesses certain advantages as well as
certain disadvantages. According to the type of material quantity in which
materials are used, and variation in the price of material over a period a
particular method of pricing the issue of materials is selected by an enterprise.
In the Stores Ledger Account the value of material Advanced Cost Accounting - I 183
Pricing of Material Issued issue is recorded and by adding the value of different materials issued for a job,
order, process or operation the total materials cost is calculated and charged to
the job, order, process or operation.
NOTES
ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATION 1
30th Spoilage - 10
units.
Ascertain the value of closing stock.
ILLUSTRATION 2
The following are the receipts and issues of material in Akbar-Ali Co. Ltd.
Ajmer, during the month of March 2012
31 Excess found in stock 430 units due to wrong weighing during the
month.
The maximum level fixed is 4,000 units, the minimum 750 units and the
reorder level is 1,000 units.
Show the Stores Ledger Account under Last In First Out Method.
(i) Excess found in stock on 31st March due to wrong weighing during the
month, is valued at ` 47 per unit as the latest purchase price.
ILLUSTRATION 3
NOTES
The stock on hand of material as on 01-01-2014 was 500 units @ ` 1 per
unit. The following purchases and issues were subsequently made. Prepare
Stores Ledger Account of Material in Ballarpur Ltd., Baroda for the three
months ended 31-03-2014 under Last In First Out Method.
Purchases :
6-1-2014 : 100 units @ ` 1.10
20-1-2014 : 700 units @ ` 1.20
27-1-2014 : 400 units @ ` 1.30
13-2-2014 : 1,000 units @ ` 1.40
20-2-2014 : 500 units @ ` 1.50
17-3-2014 : 400 units @ ` 1.60
Issues :
9-1-2014 : 500
22-1-2014 units
30-1-2014 : 500
15-2-2014 units
22-2-2014 : 500
11-3-2014 units
On 29-03-2014 the :stock500
verifier reported that there was a breakage of 15
units. units
: 500
units
: 500
units
A stock verifier noted that on 15th he had found a shortage of 5 units and
on 28th a damage of 8 units.
27 th
Refund of surplus - 12 25 300 216 25 5,400 Refund*
208 23.50 4,888
12 25 300
28 th
Damage - 8 25 200 216 25 5,400 Damage*
208 23.50 4,888
4 25 100
29 th
Purchases - 100 24 2,400 216 25 5,400
208 23.50 4,888
4 25 100
100 24 2,400
NOTES
On 1st March, 2013 the stock of a component in the stores was 500 units
@ ` 300 per hundred. During the three months the receipts and issues were as
follows:
NOTES Purchased :
Marc : 400 units @ ` 400 per hundred
h : 500 units @ ` 500 per hundred
April : 600 units @ ` 600 per hundred
May
Issued : : 300
Marc units
h : 400
When stock units
April was taken on 31st May 2013, a discrepancy of 50 units was
revealed. May : 500
units
Prepare a Stores Ledger Card under First In First Out Method in the
books of Hamam Ltd., Himmatpur.
195
Pricing of Material Issued
0
Pricing of Material Issued ILLUSTRATION 6
14th Shortage 10 -
The stock in hand of a Material Fox as on 1st January 2009 was 500 units
@
` 10 per unit. From the following transactions of purchases and issues of Finolex
Co. Ltd., Faizabad, prepare a Stores Ledger Account under First In First Out
Method. NOTES
Purchases :
6 th 20th
Jan. 100 units @ ` 11
Jan. 700 units @ ` 12
27th Jan. 400 units @ ` 13
Feb. 1,000 units @ ` 14
13th
Feb. 500 units @ ` 15
20th Mar. 400 units @ ` 16
17th
Jan. 500 units
Issues : Jan. 500 units
Jan. 500 units
9 th 22nd Feb. 500 units
500 units
30th
Feb. 500 units
15th Missing units
Mar 20.
22 nd .
Mar
11th .
30th
Purchases :
5
th 100 Pieces @ ` 2.20 - Goods Received Note -7
th
29 150 Pieces - Material Requisition Note - 6
th
7
th
12
28th
Prepare a Stores Ledger Account from the following receipts and issues of
Material Lee-45 of Liril Co. Ltd. for March, 2012 pricing it on Weighted
Average Rate Method.
NOTES Receipts :
Date Quantity P.O.No. Rate Per Unit
(Units) `
1st 1,000 8 10
15 th 1,500 12 9
500 20 8
30 th
Issues :
Date Quantit M.R.N.
y No.
(Units)
3rd 500 6
9 th 250 8
1,250 13
20 th 500 19
31 th
30th
31 st
NOTES
= ` 8,571
1,000 units
ILLUSTRATION
= ` 10
8.571
From the following information relating to Material- Kobra of Kalyani
Manufactures, Kanpur, Prepare a Stores Ledger Account for the month of March
2014 on the basis of Weighted Average Rate Method.
13th
Issues - 200 units - M.R.N. No. 19
` 1,000
=
100 units
= ` 10
` 1,000 + ` 2,040
=
300 units
` 3,040
=
300 units
= ` 10.133
` 506.75 + ` 3,150
=
350 units
` 3,656.75
=
350 units
= ` 10.448
` 5,816.75
=
550 units
= ` 10.576
` 2,686.40
=
250 units
NOTES
= ` 10.745
ILLUSTRATION 11
2nd 200 2. 87
10th 300 2.40 89
15th 250 67
18th
250 2.60 94
20th 200 69
24th 200 2.50 96
30th 300 70
Record the above transitions in the Stores Ledger Account on the basis of
Weighted Average Rate Method.
= (200 units x `
2nd 2) 200 units
` 400
=
200 units NOTES
= ` 2
18th =
(250 units x ` 2.24) +
250 units + 250 units
(250 units x 2.60)
` 560 + ` 650
=
500 units
` 1,210
=
500 units
= ` 2.42
=
(300 units x ` 2.42) + (200 units x `
24th
2.50) 300 units + ` 200 units
` 726 + ` 500
=
500 units
=
` 1,226
= `500 units
2.452
2) Explain briefly the various factors which are considered before adopting a
particular method of pricing of issues from stores.
4) Discuss the effects of rising prices and falling prices on Last In First Out
method of pricing of materials issues.
II - Exercises
1. From the following, prepare Stores Ledger Account under : (i) FIFO and
(ii) LIFO methods for the month ended 31st January, 2012
Purchases :
Issues
2nd Jan. : Issues 150 pieces
7th Jan. Issues 100 pieces
12th Jan. Issues 100 pieces
April
2010
1st April Opening Stock 50 tonnes @ ` 10 per tonne
At what prices will you issue the materials ? Use FIFO and LIFO methods
and show the comparative results.
3. A manufacturer used cost price as the basis for charging out the materials to
jobs. The receipt side of the stores ledger accounts shows the following
particulars :
Successive issues were made of 300, 1000 and 200 articles. At what price per
article should each of these issues be charged under FIFO method ?
Date
Par
e (`
)
Pricing of Material Issued 24-1- Purchases 1,40 4.40
2009 0
25-1- Received back from
2009
completed job
5. The following are the receipts and issues of coal in a factory during
March, 2011.
March 1 Opening stock 200 tons at ` 460 per ton
4 Issues 140 tons
6 Purchased 350 tons at ` 450 per ton
8 Condemned due to deterioration in quantity and transferred to
scrap 30 tons
9 Issues 80 tons
14 Issues 210 tons
17 Purchased 200 tons at ` 480 per ton
20 Issued 210 tons
25 Purchased 180 tons at ` 470 per ton
28 Issues 280 tons
31 Excess found in stock - 43 tons due to wrong weighing during
the month
The maximum level fixed is 400 tons, the minimum 75 tons and the re-
order level is 100 tons. Show the Stores Ledger Account under LIFO
system.
7. Issued 70 quintals
8. Issued 80 quintals
A stock verifier of the factor noted that on 15th January he had found a
shortage of 5 quintals and on 28th January another shortage of 8 quintals. NOTES
7. The following particulars have been extracted in respect of “Material A’.
Prepare Stores Ledger Account pricing the material issue on the basis of
First In First Out (FIFO) method and Last In First Out (LIFO) method :
Receipts :
Issues :
15-3-2013 - - 250
20-3-2013 - - 200
9. During January 2009, The Jagat Engineering Co. Ltd. effected the
purchase of a certain item of stores as under :
During the same period the details of the issues of the item were
under :
Issues :
Date Units
8-1-2009 50
20-1-2009 100
Enter the above transactions in the Stores Ledger under the Weighted
Average price Method.
10. The following figure relate, to Material ‘X’. Prepare Stores Ledger
Account showing receipt and issue, pricing the issue on the basis of
Weighted Average.
3-10-2009
1-1-2009 Purchases 300 units
Opening Stock@200
` 4units
per unit
@ ` 3.50 per unit
5-10-2009 Issued 400 units
11. From the following information prepare Stores ledger account under Weighted
Average Price Method for the months of March 2014.
each Purchases :
12. The following are details supplied by Modern Company Ltd., in respect
of its raw materials for the month of March 2012
Date 2012 Receipts (Issues)
March Units kg.
Units kg. Price per kg. `
1. 2,000 5.
7. 1,000 6.
10. 2,500
15. 2,000 7.
Show
31. the Stores Ledger Account under FIFO and LIFO system.
2,200
13. The stock in hand of a material as on 1-1-2014 was 500 units at ` 1 per unit.
The following purchases and issues were subsequently made. Prepare the
Stores Ledger Account under FIFO method.
Purchases Issued
1. Under -------- method simplicity and convenience are lost when there is
too much change in the price of materials.
(a) LIFO
(b) FIFO
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 217
Pricing of Material Issued (c) Weighted average price
(b) FIFO
3. Value of closing stock under ------- method can be well accepted for the
purpose of preparation of balance sheet.
(b) LIFO
(c) FIFO
Group I Group II
(c) Base stock method iii) manufacturing process for long period
NOTES
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit Objectives
4. Types of labour
1. Direct Labour
2. Indirect Labour
3. Casual Labourers
4. Out Workers
6. Labour turnover
7. Summary
8. Key Terms
9.0 Introduction
After studying information related to the first element of cost, viz. material
cost, we have to study information about the second element of cost, viz. labour
cost. In every manufacturing as well as service providing concern, labour is
required to be used for creating finished product from the materials or for
providing service to customers. Physical labour, skill and intelligence required for
this work is provided by human beings who are employed by the concerns. In
this unit, information about meaning and importance of labour and about types
of labour is provided.
1. Direct Labourers
2. Indirect Labourers
4. Out Workers
222 Advanced Cost Accounting - I Direct labourers are those labourers who are engaged in the process of
Meaning & Types of Labour
manufacturing by doing the work of mixing of materials. heating the materials,
operating on machines for giving a certain shape to the processed material by
cutting, moulding and shaping and thus creating a finished product. All the
workers who are performing one or more of the above mentioned activities is
regarded as direct labour and the amount paid to them is termed as the direct
labour cost. The labour of these workers can be easily and conveniently related
NOTES
to the finished product or a component created by them.
Thus labour which can be identified with its output is regarded as direct
labour and the cost incurred for such labour is direct labour and the cost
incurred for such labour is recorded as direct labour cost. A machinist
operating a machine, a coal miner digging out the coal, a carpenter cutting and
fitting the pieces of wood for creating chairs, tables or other wooden furniture, a
worker working on a weaving machine for producing cloth, an electrician doing
the work of fitting wires and cables in a motor car are all examples of direct
labour.
2. Indirect Labourers
3. Casual
Casual Labourers
labourers are not regular or permanent labourers of a concern.
They are unemployed workers in search of jobs. Before commencement of the
regular work in the factory they assembled at the gate of the factory with the
hope of getting some work for a day or two. The need for casual workers arises
when some regular and permanent workers remain absent and to replace them
for a day or more casual workers are given their work. Casual workers also
become necessary when there is sudden and temporary increase in the volume
of work. Normally, a foreman comes at the gate, makes enquiry with the persons
waiting there and selects the required number of workers who posses knowledge
of doing that work and takes them in the factory as casual workers. The casual
workers are paid remuneration on daily basis and they do not get any facilities
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 223
Meaning & Types of Labour which are provided to the permanent workers. Generally casual workers are
taken up for doing jobs of unskilled nature and their work is supervised by a
foreman or a senior worker. The casual worker is given a job card to record the
nature and amount of work done by him and payment of wages is made to him
on that basis. To avoid the risk of payment to casual or badaly workers, the
NOTES person who has selected him should not be allowed to make payment of wages
to him. This helps in controlling loss caused by payment made to dummy or
bogus workers.
4. Out Workers
1. Personnel Department,
2. Engineering Department,
3. Time-keeping Section.
5. Labour Turnover
Labour Turnover is the loss of employment in an organisation. It is a
national problem of every nation and leads to high costs and low productivity
The extent of Labour Turnover various according to industry, structure of
employment in the country; ratio of male and female in labour force, and
infrastructure of a particular organisation. Although the cost of labour turnover
is high in these days, very little effort has been made to collect, classify and
compare the cost of labour turnover. A detailed study of the causes of labour
turnover, analysis and comparison of cost of such turnover may help in
controlling the situation.
1) Separation Method
Number of workers left during a period
LabourThis method
Turnover takes
Rate = into account only those workers who have left during
x 100 a
particular period. The formula is :
Average Number of workers during the period
Number of workers Number of workers
+
at in the beginning end of the
Average Number = x 100
period 2
2) Replacement Method
If new workers are engaged for expansion programme or any other such
purpose they are not considered for this computation. NOTES
3) Flux Method
This shows the total change in the composition of labour force due to
separations and additions of workers. The formula is :
Number of
workers left + workers replaced
Labour Turnover Rate = Number of x 100
Average Number of workers during the period
EXAMPLE
Number of replacements 08
SOLUTION
80 + 100
Average number of workers = = 90
2
8
= x 100 = 8.8 %
90
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 227
Meaning & Types of Labour
Number of workers left +
Number of workers replaced
3) Flux Rate = x 100
Average Number of workers
9+8
NOTES = x 100 = 18.8 %
90
i) Avoidable causes
1) Avoidable Causes :
These include :
b) Dissatisfaction with
i) low remuneration, ii) job, iii) long hours of work, iv) bad working
conditions, v) locality or environment.
e) Lack of :
2) Unavoidable Causes :
a) Personnel betterment,
b) Retirement,
228 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
c) Sickness, Meaning & Types of Labour
d) Accidents,
e) Death,
f) Domestic
responsibilities, NOTES
g) Pregnancy or marriage,
i) National service,
3) Personnal Causes :
c) Personal betterment,
d) Marriage of girls.
ii) Costs connected with new entrants such as accidents, breakage of tools,
spoilage of finished products etc.
iii Delay in production.
)
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 229
Meaning & Types of Labour iv) Efficiency of new workers becomes very low and hence productivity will
also be low.
The cost of labour turnover may be broadly classified into two broad
categories viz. Preventive costs, and Replacement costs.
i) Preventive Costs
These costs are those which are incurred to keep the work force satisfied
and to prevent or discourage them from leaving the organisation. These include :
e) Extra bonus and other perquisities (in excess of those given by other
similar concerns) to discourage their defecting to other undertakings.
These costs include all such losses and wastages arising because of the
inexperienced new labour force replacing the existing one as well as the cost of
recruitment and training of the new workers. These include :
avoidable causes given earlier. The following steps may be taken in this regard
i) Working of Cost
The cost of labour of Labour
turnover Turnover
may be worked out as :a percentage of sales
or per worker employed as follows :
1
0
Total cost of labour turnover
or 0
Average number of workers employed
S
a
l Advanced Cost Accounting - I 231
e
s
Meaning & Types of Labour
ii) Preventive costs should be apportioned to the different departments in
proportion to the number of employees in each department.
FORMULAE
Meaurement of Labour
Turnover :
1) Separation Method : NS
x 100
AW
2) Replacement Method : NR
x 100
AW
3) Flux Method : NS + NR
x 100
A W
Number of workers Number of workers
+
left in a period replaced in a
Labour Turnover Rate = period x
100 Average Number of workers on the payroll in the period
ILLUSTRATION 1
The extracts from the payroll of Air Cooler Co., Ltd., Ahmedabad is as
follows :
Number of workers on 1-3-2012 150
Calculate the labour turnover rate during the month under different
methods.
= 175 workers
1) Separation Method :
= 16 %
2) Replacement Method :
= 12 %
3) Flux Method :
Number of workers Number of workers
+
left in a period replaced in a
Labour Turnover Rate = period x 100
Average number of workers on the payroll in the period
28 + 21
= x 100
175
= 28 %
1,993 SOLUTION
= 2,000 employees
1) Separation Method :
= 6%
2) Replacement Method :
60
= x 100
2,000
=3%
120 + 60
= x 100 NOTES
2,000
180
= x 100
2,000
=9%
ILLUSTRATION 3
SOLUTION
= 1,000 workers
1) Separation Method :
= 4%
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 235
Meaning & Types of Labour
2) Replacement Method :
NOTES 20
= x 100
1,000
=2%
3) Flux Method :
Number of workers Number of workers
+
left in a period replaced in a
Labour Turnover Rate = period x 100
Average number of workers on the payroll in the period
40 + 20
= x 100
1,000
60
= x 100
1,000
=6%
ILLUSTRATION 4
During the month 10 workers left, 40 workers were discharged and 150
workers were newly recruited of these 25 workers were recruited in the
vacancies of those leaving, while the rest were for an expansion scheme.
SOLUTION
1) Separation Method :
= 5%
2) Replacement Method :
= 2.5 %
2.5 x 365
Annual Labour Turnover Rate = = 30.42%
30
3) Flux Method :
Number of workers Number of workers
+
left in a period replaced in a
Labour Turnover Rate = period x 100
Average number of workers on the payroll in the period
50 + 25
= x 100
1,000
75
= x 100
1,000
= 7.5 %
= 7.5 x 365
Annual Labour Turnover Rate = = 91.25%
30
7.5 %
Advanced Cost Accounting - I 237
Meaning & Types of Labour
ILLUSTRATION 5
During February 2012, the following information was obtained from the
personnel department of Moderate Co., Malegaon. Labour force at the beginning
of the month, 1,767 and 2,233 at the end of the month. During the month 60
NOTES persons were discharged and 20 left the company, During the month 200 workers
were engaged out of which only 40 workers were appointed against the vacancy
caused by the number of workers separated and the remaining on account of
extension programme of the company. Calculate the labour turnover rate and
equivalent annual rate under :
i) Separation method
SOLUTION
= 2,000 workers
1) Seperation Method :
= 4%
2) Replacement Method :
Number of workers replaced in a period
Labour Turnover Rate = x 100
238 Advanced Cost Accounting - I Average Number of workers on the payroll in the period
Meaning & Types of Labour
40
x 100
=
2,000
=2 %
3) Flux Method :
Number of workers Number of workers
+
left in a period replaced in a
Labour Turnover Rate = period x 100
Average Number of workers on the payroll in the period
80 + 40
= x 100
2,000
120
= x 100
2,000
=6 %
9.6 Summary
Labour cost is the second element of cost. It is an important element of
cost since it forms a substantial portion of the total cost of a product. Labour is
provided by human beings who provide physical, intelligence power, skills which
are required for creating a final product from the materials. There are various
types of labour such as direct labour, indirect labour, casual labourers, out
workers and depending upon level of skill possessed by labourers skilled, semi-
skilled labour and unskilled labour. An organisation is established consisting
of personnel department, engineering department, time-keeping section,
remuneration and payroll departments and cost accounting department. Such
organisation looks after various activities related to labour. Labour turnover is a
problem faced by all industries and by all nations. Measurement of labour
turnover is done by using separation method, replacement method and flux
method. It is important to find out causes of labour turnover, cost of labour
turnover and efforts are required to be made to minimise labour turnover and its
cost.
v) Indirect Labour Cost : Cost incurred for the indirect labourers. It is also
known as factory overheads.
vi) Casual Workers / Labourers : Workers who are not permanent workers
of an enterprise. According to the need of a concern, they are temporarily
taken up for doing the work, from unemployed labourers assembling
outside the gate of the concern.
vii Out Workers : Out workers do not work in the factory premises but
) perform the work assigned to them of their homes or perform it at the
customers’ homes or offices if it is a service to be provided.
(c) payroll
(d) store
(2) Indirect labour costs are not ----------- with the production of specific
goods or services.
(a) identifiable
(b) negotiate
(c) recorded
(a) highest
(b) efficien
t
Group I Group II
II - Theory Questions
5. What are causes of labour turnover? What care should be taken to keep
labour turnover to minimum ?
6. Explain the cost of labour turnover. ‘Zero labour turnover should be the
target of a good industrial concern’. Do you agree with the statement ?
NOTES
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit objectives
3. Time keeping
3. Summary
4. Key Terms
5. Questions
6. Further Reading
7. Introduction
In every manufacturing as well as service providing enterprise a
number of workers and other employees are appointed to perform certain work
assigned to them. They work in different sections and department for co-
ordinating their work and for smooth functioning of the enterprise there is a
particular time at which they are they should report for work and a certain time
upto which they should remain present. When the number of workers and
employees is a large number a separate arrangement for recording the ‘in’ time
and ‘out’ time has to be made which is known as ‘time-keeping’ arrangement. In
this Unit we shall study information related to this arrangement in detail.
8. Unit objectives
Time keeping means recording in and out time of the workers. Working of a
factory is an organized activity and to carry on this activity efficiently and
smoothly, it is necessary that the workers appointed for doing different types of
work should be available in the factory. Every factory decides the time at which
the work should begin and the time upto which the work should be carried on.
According to the volume of work, the number of workers and the space of the
factory the management decides whether the factory should operate in one, two
or three shifts and fixes the working hours for each shift. While deciding the
working hours the management should follow the provisions given in the
Factories Act. Provision is also made for lunch-break and tea-break for the
workers. Hours fixed for each shift are known as ‘normal hours’ and if workers
work over and above the normal hours, the additional time worked by them is
the ‘over-time’ work done by them and for over-time wages are paid at higher
rate which may be one and half times or at double of the normal rate of wages.
1. It is a statutory requirement.
5. Certain benefits like pension and gratuity, leave with pay, provident fund
are provided by considering the continuity of service of the employees.
Also decisions regarding promotion, disciplinary action to be taken
against the employee are taken by considering regularity and punctuality
of the employees which becomes available from the time-keeping
records.
B] Mechanical Methods.
A) Manual Methods :
In these methods the work of recording attendance as well as recording in- NOTES
time and out-time is done either by the workers themselves or by the time-
keeper/ time clerk appointed to do that work and no mechanical device is used
for doing it. Under manual methods there are two methods available as under:-
The method suffers from two defects. First defect is that the timings
recorded by the workers may not be accurate because the worker may write the
timings to show that he is very punctual.
The second defect of the method is that a workers may record the
attendance of on absent or late-coming worker who is his friend by imitating his
initials and detection of this is very difficult.
In this method metal tokens or round metal discs are prepared. Each
worker is given an identity number and it is either painted or engraved on a
token or disc. The token or disc has a hole in it so that it can be hung from a
hook or nail. A board is prepared having sufficient nails or hooks attached to it.
The tokens or discs are hung in serial order and it is kept just inside the factory
gate. A similar
A
a
Time Keeping broad is kept near the time-keepers cabin. When a worker arrives for joining his
duty, he goes to the board, removes the token or disc bearing his number from
the board and hangs it on the board kept near the cabin of the time-keeper.
When the time allowed for reporting to the work is over, the time-keeper
removes the second board and keeps a box having a slot at its top in the place
NOTES of the board. A workers reporting late has to put his token or disc in the box or
he may be required to hand over the token or disc personally to the time-keeper
who notes down the time of reporting in the register. The tokens still hanging
from the first board indicate the workers who are absent on that day and the
time-keeper does the absence recording in the register. The tokens hanging
from the second board show the workers who have reported for the work within
the time allowed and their presence is recorded by the time-keeper. Similarly
the tokens put in the box by late-comers are removed from the box and the late-
timing is recorder in the register against the names of the workers bearing those
token numbers. The same procedure is repeated when workers go-out from the
factory. Only tokens of workers who are present for work are hung on the
second board and when the worker goes out he takes his token and hangs it on
the board kept near the gate. After the regular working hours are over, the
tokens still hanging from the second board indicate the workers who are
working over-time.
Token or disc method can be used for any number of workers by preparing
required number of tokens and by using separate boards bearing a fixed number
for each board.
This method suffers from the defect that a worker may remove his own token
and also token bearing his friend’s number and hang them on the other board
thus recording his own as well as his absent or late-coming friend’s presentee.
Strict supervision at the board will become necessary to see that each worker
takes only one token from the board.
B) Mechanical Methods :
In this method each worker is given a card bearing name of the worker,
his number, name of the department in which he works. There are columns
provided for recording ‘in’, ‘out’, ‘in’, ‘out’ timings for each day. A card covers
the period of one week after which a fresh card is prepared for the worker.
These cards are serially arranged on a tray and the tray is kept on a table inside NOTES
the factory gate. When a worker enters into the gate, he picks up his card from
the ‘out tray’, inserts it inside the clock at proper place so that the clock records
his in-time for the day. The worker takes out his card, checks the time recorded
and places the card in another tray known as ‘in-tray’. Same procedure is
repeated by the worker when he wants to record his ‘out-time’ only difference
being that he takes the card from ‘in-tray’ and after the clock has recorded the
out time he places it in the ‘out-tray’. The clock has an additional feature of
recording late-timings and over- times in red ink so that these entries of timings
are immediately noticed by the time-keeper. It is necessary to keep the
recordings under the observation of the time-keeper so that every worker will
take only his card for doing the time recording and possibility of recordings of
time for a ‘dummy’ or ‘ghost’ worker is eliminated. A specimen of a time-card
or clock card is shown below.
------------ Co Ltd.
Time card
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
In this method a dial recorder is used for recording in and out time of the
workers. The recorder has a dial and on the dial there are about 160 holes. Each
hole bears a number and each worker is given his identity or token number, these
numbers corresponding to the numbers given to holes on the dial. The dial
NOTES
recorder also has a dial arm at the center of the dial. The dial recorder also has a
dial arm at the centre of the dial. When a worker enters the gate of the factory
he goes to the dial recorder, moves the dial arm to the hole bearing his identity
number and presses the dial arm into that hole. When this is done, on the roll of
the paper kept inside the dial recorder the number of the worker and the time the
dial arm was pressed by the worker are automatically printed. Same procedure
is followed by the worker to record his out-time. At the end of the month the
paper roll is taken out from the dial recorder and a new paper roll is fitted in the
clock recorder. The paper roll on which the number and the in-coming and out-
going time of the workers are printed can be used for calculating the hours-
normal and overtime-of each worker and for preparation of payrolls.
Advantages :
3) Since the timings are, automatically printed, they are accurate and
workers complaints about wrong time recorded by the time-keeper do not
take place.
This method has advantages and disadvantages which are similar to dial
recorder method.
3. Summary
Time keeping is an arrangement made by the enterprise to record ‘in time’
and ‘out time’ for each worker and employee. In time means the time at which a
worker enters through the gate of the enterprise and out time means the time he
goes out of the gate. In other words, the total time for which a worker was
present in the premises of the enterprise becomes available through the time
keeping record. Similarly whether a worker was present or absent on all working
days of the enterprise can also be found out by using the time keeping record. If
the enterprise operates in two or three shifts, the time keeping for workers of
each shift is required to be made. Time keeping is a statutory requirement of the
management of an enterprise.
4. Key Terms
i) Time Keeping : Reducing of ‘in’ and ‘out’ time of each worker present in
the factory.
(a) performance
(b) attendance
(c) efficiency
(a) Time-keeping
(b) Time-booking
(c) Payroll
(d)Production
3. Match the
pairs. Group I Group II
II - Theory Questions
Structure
1. Introduction
NOTES
2. Unit Objectives
3. Time Booking
3. Summary
4. Key Terms
5. Questions
6. Further Reading
7. Introduction
In the previous Unit we have studied time keeping and methods used for
time keeping. Time keeping gives in time and out time or arrival time and
departure time of every worker. However, this information is not sufficient for
calculations for labour cost. A worker is paid remuneration of the basis of time
spent by him in doing the work assigned to him. A worker may do only one job
or he may do different jobs on one day. For calculating the labour cost of a job
the actual time spent by a worker on that job is taken into consideration.
Arrangement made for recording ‘on-time’ (starting time) and ‘off-time’ (stop
time) is called time booking arrangement. By considering actual working time
of all workers who have performed work of that job and the wage rate
applicable to each such worker, the labour cost of the job or process or
operation can be calculated.
8. Unit Objectives
• Understand meaning and need for time booking;
• Know the various methods available for doing time booking; and
After studying information given in this unit you should be able to :-
• Prepare the documents used under different methods of time booking.
Time- Booking is a systematic arrangement to find out how much time the
workers have used for performance of a job, activity, process or production
work. When a worker reports for work in a section or department, the supervise
or foreman of the section/department informs him which work is to be done by
the worker. It may be a particular job, process or a certain stage in the
manufacturing activity. When the worker actually starts the work, time when the
worker has started the work is recorded by him or by the foreman under whom
he is working. This time is called as ‘on-time’ or ‘starting-time’. When the
worker stops the work he was doing, that time is also recorded and is known as
‘off-time’ or ‘finish- time’. From the on-time upto the off-time the time is
calculated and recorded as the working time or productive time. If the
productive time falls within the normal working hours it is recoreded as normal
hours and if the worker has worked even after the normal working hours were
over such additional time is recorded as the over-time.
4. For calculation and control of idle time the time booked for workers is
compared with the hours for which the workers were present in the factory
premises. Through time booking the labour hours actually put in for
doing the work can be determined.
254 Advanced Cost Accounting - I
Time Booking
5. In those concerns where incentive or bonus payment is made on the basis of
time saved by the workers out of time allowed for doing a certain work,
accurate information about actual time taken by the workers is needed.
Time booking fulfills this need.
In this method a daily time sheet is prepared for each worker, when the
worker reports for the work, the foreman gives him a daily time sheet. The
information asked for in the sheet is to be filled-in by the worker himself and
when he stops the work in the evening, he is required to hand over the completed
sheet duly signed by him to the foreman. The foreman checks the recording in
the sheet and if they correct he sings the sheet and sends it to the cost
department. The cost clerk completes the recording in respect of normal hours,
over-time hours and the rates applicable and shows the total labour cost for the
worker for the day. He is also required to sign the sheet taking responsibility for
the calculations shown in it. Total number of daily time sheets will be equal to
the actual number of workers who were present for doing the work on that day.
These sheets are preserved and used for the further cost analysis.
————————————— Company
ii) Over-time Worke Forema Cost clerk Advanced Cost Accounting - I 255
r n
Time Booking In the daily time sheet information is recorded by the worker on the same
day the work is performed by him and it is also verified by the foreman
immediately and so the information is more accurate.
The drawback of this method is the lot of paper work involved since for
NOTES every worker one daily time sheet has to be prepared and so this method is not
suitable where the number of workers employed is very large.
This method is similar to the method of daily time sheet except the time
booking is done for the days of the week. Worker is given a weekly time sheet at
the commencement of the work on the first day of the week. He records the
details such as job or production order number, the starting and finishing time of
the work, details of the work performed by him and normal and overtime hours
spent by him on the job each day. At the end of the week he signs the sheet and
gives it to the foreman who checks the entries and if found correct, certifies it so
by singing the sheet and sends it to the cost department for calculations of
normal and overtime wages and any incentive bonus if applicable to the
worker.
—————————— Company
Weekly Time Sheet
Name Of
Worker :------------------------------------------------------
Token No. :----------------------------------- Week ending on:-----------------
Department :----------------------------------
Total
filling on (starting) and off (finishing) times. This inaccuracy will cause the
calculations of labour cost to become wrong.
This is another method used for time booking. Under it job card or job
NOTES
ticket can be prepared in the following ways :
d) Piece-work card.
Brief information about each of the above four methods are given below:
For each job a separate job card is prepared to record the time worked on
the job by each worker and the labour cost of each stage of the job and total
labour cost of a job. Job No., Job description, the sequence in which the stages
of the job are to be completed are recorded in the job-card by the production
engineering department. The job card is given to the worker or the group of
workers who have to perform the first stage of the job. The worker/workers
record their names, the starting time and the finishing time of that stage and
total hours worked on the first stage of the job and hand over the work together
with the job-card to the foreman and the foreman give the the work to the
worker/ workers who have to do the next stage of the job work. In this way the
job card moves with the job and when the recording of the last stage of job
work is done, the total time taken for completion of the job is calculated. The
cost department calculates the direct labour cost of the job by considering the
time spent by each worker and the normal, overtime rate and any incentive
bonus amount payable to the workers.
Job card for each job provides information about the various stages
through which it has been completed, the departments and which workers from
these departments have performed these stages, the time taken by them to
complete all the stages, how many normal hours and overtime hours were
required to do the job and the labour cost incurred for the job. All this
information becomes available on a single job card or job ticket and it provides
guidance while planning a similar type of job.
Day Tokan Name Dept. Work done Time Hours Rate Amount
No. of of On Off Normal Over ` `
Date Worke Worker time
r
Total
In this method for each worker a separate job card is prepared for a
specific period, say a week or a fortnight. The job card is given to the worker at
the commencement of the period and the job number and the work he is required
to do in respect of the job is told to him. When the worker starts his work, he
records the time as ‘on time’ and when he finishes his work he records the time
as ‘off-time’. After showing the recording to the foreman who had assigned the
work to him, the worker receives instructions about another job either in the
same department or a different departments. He begins the work on the new job
and again does the recording for it in the job card with him. At the end of the
specific period he signs it and gives it to the foreman or drops it in the box
provided for it. Thus the time booked by the worker on one or more jobs during
the specific period are recorded on the job card of the worker and the
remuneration payable to him for the period can be calculated by the cost clerk.
Comparing the time booked with attendance time of the worker, becomes
258 Advanced Cost Accounting - I easy in this method.
Time Booking
c) Combined Time and Job Card :
This method is useful for a small concern which employees a few workers
and on whom proper supervision can be kept to see that they report for the
work punctually and do the jobs assigned to them. Since recording of in and out
time (time-keeping) and on and off time (time-booking) of a worker is recorded
on the same card, it becomes easy to reconcile time of attendance and working
time and find out the idle time.
—————————— &
Company
Combined Time and Job Card
Mon
Tues
Wed.
Thurs.
Fri.
Sat.
Day Job Description Time Production Rejections Accepted Initials Passed by Rate
Amount
No. of Work Take (Units) (Units) (Units) (Inspector)
` `
n Worke
Mon.
r
Tue.
Wed.
Thurs.
Fri.
Sat.
Tota
l
11.3 Summary
Time booking means recording ‘on-time’ and ‘off-time’ of workers
performing a job, process, activity or operation assigned to them. On-time is
also known as ‘starting-time’ and ‘off-time’ is also known as ‘stop or finishing
time’.
Time booking enables the management to find out how much of
attendance
260 Advanced Cost Accounting - I time is spent by a worker for doing the work assigned to him. For
calculating wages when wages are paid on time-rate basis, for judging
efficiency of worker by comparing the actual time taken by him for doing
the work with the time
Time Booking
allowed by management for doing the work and for calculating amount of
incentive payable to a worker for the time saved by him information becomes
available from time-booking records. Total labour cost of a job, process, activity
and operation can be calculated by finding out actual time spent by workers who
have done the work and the amount of wages payable to them for such work.
Preparation of ‘daily time sheet’, ‘weekly time sheet’. ‘Job card/job ticket’ for
each worker or each job’, ‘combined time and job card’ and ‘piece-work card’ NOTES
are the methods of time- booking and depending upon nature of work and
number of workers employed a suitable method of time booking is selected and
used for time booking.
ii) Daily Time Sheet : It is a sheet to given to each worker when he reports for
work every day. Details are filled in the columns by the worker and the
sheet is given to supervisor / foreman when the day’s work is over. The
supervisor checks the details recorded by the worker and signs the sheet
and sends it to wages section for further analysis.
iii Weekly Time Sheet : It is similar to the Daily Time Sheet with the
) difference that it is used for a week by a worker.
iv) Job Card for Each Job : It is a card used for time-booking of all the
workers who have worked on the job.
v) Job card for each worker : It is a card provided to each worker in which
he records his time booked for all the jobs which he has worked during a
specific period of time.
11.5 Questions
I - Multiple Choice Questions
3) When the workers are paid remuneration not on the basis of time worked
but on the basis of quality produced is known as ------- remuneration.
NOTES
(a) time rate
(d) piece-rate
(a) Daily time sheet method is not suitable where number of workers
employed is very large.
II - Theory Questions
2. Give the specimen of ‘Daily Time Sheet’. ‘Weekly Time Sheet’ and ‘Job
Card For Each Job’. Also mention how recording is done in these
documents.
Structure
NOTES
1. Introduction
2. Unit Objectives
7. Summary
8. Key Terms
9. Questions
1. Introduction
In Unit 10 and 11, information is provided about time keeping and time
booking respectively. Attendance time is the time calculated from ‘in time’ to
‘out time’ of a worker whereas actual work-time is calculated by considering
‘on- time’ and ‘off-time’ of a worker spent by him on one or more jobs
performed by him on the same day. Time kept by a worker (attendance time) is
always more than time booked (actual working time) by him on any day. It is
important to reconcile the time kept with time booked for every worker
employed by the enterprise and minimise the difference in order to control
the labour cost. Information about the reconciliation is provided in this unit.
2. Unit Objectives
Information given in this unit should enable you to understand :
Idle time is of two types : normal idle time and abnormal idle time.
Normal idle time is caused by reasons which are of unavoidable nature, e.g. time
taken by a worker for walking from the entrance to the section or department
where he performs the work assigned to him. Similarly waiting to receive
instructions from the foreman or supervisor also results in idle time which
cannot be avoided and so it is treated as normal idle time.
According to the causes due to which the idle time arises they can be
grouped under three groups as shown below :
a) Production Causes,
NOTES
b) Administration Causes, and
c) Economic Causes.
a) Production Causes :
b) Administration Causes :
c) Economic Causes :
These are the causes due to the economic situations. They include :-
n
Reconciliation of Time 2) Seasonal nature of the product being manufactured by the concern.
Kept & Time Booked
During off-season period production is reduced.
1) Time taken by a worker to reach his department or place of work form the
gate of the factory.
12.6 Summary
NOTES
There is a difference between time kept (attendance time) and time booked
(time used for performance of work) for a worker. It is necessary to find out how
much is the difference between these two and why the difference has taken
place. This activity is known as reconciliation of time kept and time booked.
This difference is known as ‘idle-time’. As a worker gets remuneration for the
idle time also, it is important for the management to minimise the idle time and
thereby control the labour cost. Complete elimination of idle time is not possible
because there are certain causes which are bound to create idle time, e.g. a
worker needs some time to reach his section or department where he works and
also needs time to prepare for the job by changing his clothes, receiving
instructions from his foreman about the job assigned to him, setting-up of the
machine and receiving materials with which the job is to be done. Similarly
some time is lost between completion of a job and starting of another job. Idle
time caused by such normal causes is called ‘normal idle time’. When idle time
is caused by reasons which are controllable, such idle time is called as
‘abnormal idle time’, causes of idle time can be grouped under production
causes, administration causes and economic causes. By preparing a separate
idle time card, total idle time, cost of the idle time and causes of idle time, the
cost of normal idle time and of abnormal idle time is calculated. Normal idle
time cost is treated as production/factory overheads and if such cost can be
traced to particular production departments, it is added to the production
overheads of that production department. Cost of abnormal idle time is treated
as abnormal loss and it is charged as abnormal loss to Costing Profit and Loss
Account of the enterprise.
i) Idle Time : It is the time difference between ‘time kept’ and ‘time booked’
by a worker. Idle time is the time not used for production work.
ii) Normal Idle Time : It is the idle time caused by reasons which cannot be
avoided.
iii Abnormal Idle Time : It is idle time which takes place due to abnormal
) reasons and available causes.
(b) unavailable
(c) suitable
(d) considerable
(a) available
(b) unavailable
(c) suitable
(d) considerable
(a) abnormal
(b) normal
(c) available
(d) unavailable
Group I Group II
2) Give causes of ‘normal idle time’ ? How is cost of normal idle time treated
?
3) What are causes of ‘abnormal idle time’ ? How is cost of abnormal idle NOTES
time treated ?
4) What are causes of ‘abnormal idle time’ ? How is cost of abnormal idle
time treated ?