THE ANCIENT EMPIRE OF

MALI

Department of History

PROF. OFOSU-MENSAH ABABIO

Modern Mali

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Ancient Mali Empire

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 INTRODUCTION
• When Ghana fell, its place in the Western Sudan was taken by Mali. Mali therefore
was the second of the Sudanese Empires to achieve greatness and prosperity. It is,
however, important to remember that while the Empire of Ghana had lasted in
some form for at least six centuries. Mali's period of prosperity lasted for just about
two centuries.
• We shall discuss the reasons for this. In our study of Mali we shall deal with

a) Its Origins
b) Its Growth and Expansion
c) Its Fall.

• By the time Mali had emerged as a powerful state, the Western Sudan was known
in the Arab world. Therefore, there is more detailed information about Mali than
about Ghana, and we can be more specific about its history.
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 Origins of Mali
• The transfer of power from Ghana, then to Susu of Kaniaga, and then
to Mali marks a shift of power to the south.
• Ghana was based in the Sahel, on the edge of the desert. Mali was
based in the Savannah, a better watered area, further south.
• There are several reasons for the move to the south.
• The more northern peoples were weakened by their conflict with the
Berbers of the Sahara, and the empire of Ghana was actually
defeated by the Berbers.
• The main gold producing area, which had been in Bambuk (or
Wangara), was replaced by Bure, which was on the Upper Niger,
further south. This meant that the trade routes also came further
south, and a wider area of the Western Sudan was brought into the
trade networks. 5
• As we noticed with Ghana, trade led to political
development and expansion, as rulers tried to control more
and more of the trade.
• This also happened in the Savannah, and led first to the rise
of commercial centres and small chiefdoms among the
Malinke (or Mandingo) people, and then to the large
empire of Mali.
• This rise of chiefdoms among the Malinke had begun by the
11th century. An Arab writer described trading towns on
the Upper Senegal river, and noted two kingdoms, called
Do and Malal, beyond it.
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• Malinke oral traditions - that is, the histories passed on by
word of mouth also refer to the rise of small chiefdoms
before the Mali empire. The traditional histories refer to
rulers of the Keita dynasty, the ancestors of the famous
Mali King Sundiata.
• Islam also played a part in the rise of the Malinke states.
The kings are said to have been converted to Islam by the
11th century, and many were supposed to have made a
pilgrimage to Mecca. Although it is not clear how
widespread Islam was, it is obvious that there was a strong
Muslim influence among the Malinke by the time of the
Mali empire. 8
 Growth and Expansion
• There were three important factors that contributed to the
growth and expansion of Mali. These were:

a) its geographical position which linked it to the Caravan

Trade

b) the prevailing political conditions in the Western Sudan

at this time

c) the ability of Sundiata.

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 Geographical Position and the
Caravan Trade
• Mali's position within the Savannah gave it a number of advantages.
It meant that agriculture was more profitable and less difficult than
further north, and that larger numbers of people could be supported.
• Mali traditions say that the founder of the empire, the famous
Sundiata, encouraged agriculture by introducing the cultivation of
cotton.
• Above all, the central part of Mali, which was the Kangaba state, was
situated quite close to the rich gold producing districts of Bure,
Bundu and Bambuk (Wangara).
• The kings of Ghana never controlled Bambuk, though they were the
only people who traded there for gold. The kings of Mali, however,
gained control over it. Consequently, they were able to dominate the
gold trade even more strongly than Ghana had done.
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• Under Sundiata, Mali extended her authority westward to the
Senegal River. In doing this she gained control over all the routes by
which gold was carried north to the edge of the Sahara. Caravans
from North Africa: were soon attracted to Mali and by the middle of
the 14th century, four of her towns had developed into the main
trading centres of the Western Sudan.
• These towns were Jenne, Timbuktu, Gao and Niani, the new capital.
Like the Soninke of Ghana, the Malinke people also took part in the
caravan trade by acting as middlemen, and became rich. They
controlled the internal trade routes and markets. At the markets, gold
was collected to be taken north, and goods from North Africa were
distributed.

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 Political Factors in the Rise of Mali
• As we have already noted, the centre of political power in
the Western Sudan had moved south. Ghana had been
defeated, and the Soninke people were weakened by their
clashes with the Berbers. Therefore, they could not
maintain a powerful state.
• A powerful state was necessary to control the gold trade
and Mali rose to fill this position. It was natural that this
new state should be further south, where the Berbers
would be less able to harass it.

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• The Susu state of Kaniaga led by Sumanguru Kante took
over power from the Ghana empire in 1203. After defeating
Ghana, in the early 13th century, Sumanguru conquered
the Malinke state of Kangaba, south of Ghana.
• He was a harsh ruler; he imposed heavy taxes and
collected much tribute, and took away all the beautiful
women. Sumanguru's rule was so unpopular that the
Malinke united under Sundiata, threw off Susu rule, and
created the empire of Mali.

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SUNDIATA

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 SUNDIATA
• Both the oral traditions and the Arabic records say that Mari Jata,
who later became known as Sundiata was the founder of the
empire.
• Sundiata was a son of a man called Nare Fa Maghan (father), a ruler
of Kangaba and Sogolon Conde (Sundiata’ mother). According to
legend, Sundiata was slow to talk and also a cripple. Mali traditions
say that he magically gained the use of his legs and he grew to be a
young man who possessed enormous physical strength.
• He was also noted for his skills in hunting and fighting. Therefore he
became extremely popular with the young men of Kangaba and
became their leader.

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• Because he was becoming too powerful, the Queen
Mother forced him to flee from Kangaba.
• While he was in exile, he was allowed to settle in
Mema.
• He became a famous warrior, with such a
commanding personality that he was appointed a
commander of a cavalry division of the King of
Mema and won for him a number of victories.

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 Sundiata's War with Sumanguru
Kante
• Kangaba's prosperity had attracted the attention of the
Susu king, Sumanguru Kante. Sumanguru Kante had
already defeated Ghana in 1203.
• In 1224, he conquered and annexed Kangaba. In order to
put down a revolt, and prevent others from arising,
Sumanguru Kante killed most of the royal (Sundiata) family.
• Another version of Sundiata's exile is that he fled Kangaba
at this time. He was allowed to escape because he was a
cripple. One member of the royal family was said to have
survived, and sought Sundiata's help to overthrow
Sumanguru Kante.
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• By about 1230, all the vassal states of Kante were ready to
revolt in order to regain their independence. Sundiata
decided to take advantage of this discontent.
• At first, with troops from Mema, he drove Sumanguru back
to his own territory. He brought the Malinke together.
Some joined him willingly; others were forced to join.
• With these people, he built a strong army and in 1234
returned to Kangaba and seized the throne.

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• The rulers of the vassal states offered to join forces with
him. For instance, the King of Bobo, in modern Upper
Volta, sent a contingent of 1,200 soldiers to Sundiata's
army. All the Malinke chiefs met together to confirm their
unity.
• In 1235, in the famous Battle of Kirina in the Niger Valley,
the united Malinke met the Susu army. The Susu were led
in person by Sumanguru Kante, who was noted for his
magic and witchcraft. This battle is portrayed in the oral
traditions as a fight between the two magicians, Sundiata
Keita and Sumanguru Kante.
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• Sundiata was able to win an overwhelming victory over
Sumanguru. Within a short time Sundiata captured the
fortified city of Susu itself. He went on to put down all
opposition in the Susu Empire.
• In 1240, he destroyed the city of Kumbi which had been the
capital of the kingdom of Ghana.
• Thus, to the people of Kangaba and the other Malinke
states, Sundiata had been a saviour. He had united them
and made them into a powerful people. He had liberated
them from the oppressive rule of the Susu.
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 Sundiata's other Conquests
• Sundiata next turned his attention to the gold-producing
regions of Bambuk, Bure and Bundu, and by the end of his
reign he had conquered them all.
• Mali also expanded to the north to gain control of the
trading towns linked to the Trans-Sahara trade.
• At the same time, Mali and her allies conquered
westwards, controlling the upper valley of the Senegal and
towards the Gambia.

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• Mali thus had under her control all the internal trade routes
over which gold was carried northwards to meet the trans-
Saharan trade. It is difficult to give exact dates for Mali's
expansion.
• It is likely that Sundiata's conquests were followed up by his
son who succeeded him. Within several decades, Mali's
frontiers had expanded from the kingdom of Kangaba. To
the north, Mali took in Ghana and the southern districts of
the Sahara.

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• To the west, Mali expanded to the Upper Senegal
River and in the south, conquered the gold-
producing districts of Wangara (Bambuk) and
Bundu. In the east its boundaries extended as far as
the Upper Niger River. A new capital was built at
Niana in order to control the trade in the conquered
areas on the Niger to Timbuktu and Gao.

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Mali Empire Trade routes 24
How Sundiata organised his Empire
• Sundiata was a good soldier who won important victories, and he was also
a good administrator. After making himself the master of the Susu Empire,
he unified his allies and the conquered territories into the empire he was
building.

• It is not surprising that he had the greatest success among the Malinke
people who were his own ethnic group. Before the battle of Kirina, all the
Malinke chiefs had pledged loyalty to Sundiata.

• After the battle was won, they surrendered their independence to

Sundiata. They then accepted their chiefdoms back from him. In this way,
they gave up their independence as individual chiefs in return for the
security and power they were to enjoy under the empire.

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• Each chiefdom then became a province of the Mali empire with the chiefs
as sub-rulers, under Sundiata, the first Mansa (King) of Mali. Each ruler
was given special titles, honours and privileges, and had to perform
special duties in the new empire.

• But, like the Ghana empire, Mali included many different peoples.
Sundiata conquered all these people but did not really integrate them. In
the more remote provinces, these peoples were often kept within the
empire by force, as can be seen by various military expeditions.

• During the reign of a strong king, the empire would be peaceful, but
during periods of weak kings, there were revolts in the outlying provinces.
Sundiata was a strong ruler, so during his reign, Mali was kept united.

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 Central Government
• In addition to the chiefs, who ruled their own area, there was
also a central government.

• The central government was concerned with the running of

the empire as a whole.

• Sundiata had advisors and ministers responsible for regulating

trade, collecting taxes, making war, communicating with other
states, and other matters of national concern.

• The administration of Mali, both in the provinces and at the

centre, later became even more efficient.
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• Sundiata set about increasing the wealth of his empire. He
first built a new capital at Niani in order to control the trade
on the Niger.

• He encouraged agriculture, especially the growing and

weaving of cotton in order to provide the requirements of the
city.

• Mali under Sundiata was able to enjoy a period of peace and

stability. Therefore, Sundiata was able to attract to his new
capital merchants [from North Africa]. The prosperity that
Ghana had once enjoyed now passed to Mali.
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• Sundiata died in 1255.
• He had laid the foundations of the wealth of
Mali.
• He had also established its system of
government, and had kept the different
peoples together.
• Sundiata can thus be regarded as one of the
most outstanding figures to emerge in the
Western Sudan.
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 MALI AFTER SUNDIATA
• When Sundiata died he was succeeded by his son Mansa Uli,
who reigned from 1255 to 1270.

• Uli was a strong king who held the empire together and made
further conquests of Bambuk and Bundu.

• Between the death of Mansa Uli and the accension of Mansa

Kankan Musa in 1312, Mali witnessed a troubled period in its
history. This was caused by a series of weak kings and
disputes about who was to be the next king.

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• There were also struggles for power between
kings and court officials. The court officials
gained power when there was a weak king.

• There were six different kings during this short

period.

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• The only successful ruler during this period was a freed slave
called Sakura who reigned from about 1285 to 1300.

• He made successful attacks on Tekrur and his armies raided

the area beyond Gao. He may even have conquered the
copper mining town of Takedda.

• On his death, several weak kings followed. The next major

ruler was Mansa Kankan Musa, another great king of Mali,
and a descendant of Sundiata's brother. We shall now turn to
the story of Mansa Musa and examine his contribution to the
greatness of Mali.
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 Mansa Kankan Musa

Mansa Musa as depicted in the Catalan Atlas in 1375 33

 Mansa Kankan Musa
• Mansa Musa came to the throne of Mali in 1312 and ruled until he died in
1337. He has always been regarded as one of the greatest kings who ruled
Mali. Mali had been well known to the Arabs, but Mansa Musa became
famous in Europe as well.

• His contribution to the greatness of Mali lay in the fact that it was he who
spread the fame of Mali and its prestige outside the Western Sudan. This
was mainly the result of his pilgrimage to Mecca between 1324 and 1325.

• Two years after his death, Mali appeared on a European map for the first
time, the Mappa Mundi of Angelino Dulcent of 1339. It appeared again in
the Catalan Map drawn in 1375 by Abraham Cresques for the Emperor
Charles V.

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 His Achievements
(a) Military Expansion
• Like Sundiata, Mansa Musa also followed a career of
conquest.

• During his time, his generals captured Walata, an important

copper-mining and commercial centre and Timbuktu, which
was then a small Berber town to the north of Mali.

• As a result of what he and his successors were able to

achieve, Timbuktu soon developed into a great commercial as
well as educational centre. Another important town that was
also captured was Gao.
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(b) Administration:
• Mansa Musa next tried to strengthen the administration of the empire. He
did this in a number of ways.

• The Malinke areas were divided into fourteen provinces. Each province
was administered by a governor who was given the title Dya-Mana-Tigi.
He was appointed by the king.

• This marks a change from the days of Sundiata, where the traditional
chiefs ruled their own territory under the king.

• These governors were either famous generals or trusted relatives or

friends of Mansa Musa.

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• Each province was sub-divided into districts composed of a number of
villages, each under a district head called Kafo-tigi. At the bottom of this
system of local government was the Dug-Tigi, who was the head of the
small village community.

• All these officials who were in charge of the provinces were responsible to
the Mansa and they were well paid. Mansa Musa was also expected to
give expensive presents such as robes, horses, gold or grants of slave
villages.

• The conquered peoples who lived in the tributary states were ruled
differently. The people appointed their own natural rulers but such rulers
had to be confirmed in office by Mansa Musa or his representative. These
rulers swore the oath of allegiance to the Mansa.

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• The Berber provinces were governed by their own Sheikhs or chiefs while
the important commercial centres also had their own governors.

• So the Malinke were governed directly through the Mansa's appointees,

but the non-Malinke were ruled by their own chiefs.

• The sub-rulers collected the annual tribute which they paid to the Mansa.
The tributary states also had to provide a specified number of soldiers to
the king's army and sometimes they had to accept at their court a
representative of the Mansa.

• This representative of the Mansa was known as a Fari-ba and his duty was
to look after the Mansa's interests. He was especially active in the
commercial areas, and ensured that taxes were properly collected.
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• Both the sub-rulers and the Mansa's officials
dealt with local matters. Such matters
included settling disputes and collecting taxes.

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 The Central Government
• The Central Government consisted of a number of councillors and officials.
Some of these officials were appointed by the king himself while others
had inherited these posts. Some of these officials were Muslim while
others were non-Muslim.

• These officials dealt with administration and policy of the empire as a

whole, and with matters of national importance, such as trade and war.

• To encourage loyal and devoted service, the king established national

honours. Those generals who exhibited bravery in wars were awarded
golden jewelry.

• The highest award was the National Honour of the Trousers; the wider
the trousers, the more distinguished the honour.
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• As far as the administration of justice was concerned, the king regularly
invited and dealt with any complaints and appeals from his subjects
against lower officials.

• He was assisted in this by a number of judges. Mansa Musa was well

known for the impartial way in which he administered justice in the
Empire.

• We can conclude that during the time of Mansa Musa, Mali enjoyed a
period of good and stable government. Law and order were maintained
throughout the length and breadth of the empire and traders could carry
out their activities without being molested.

• As we have already seen, stability depended on having a strong king, and

Mansa Musa was one of the most powerful.
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(c) Trade and Commerce:
• Mali's officials were well paid. What were the sources of this wealth? The
wealth of Mali came mostly from trade. Mansa Musa encouraged trade
and commerce.

• As a result of the good and stable government that Mali enjoyed, these
two activities prospered. The salt producing region of Taghaza and the
gold producing regions of Bure, Bambuk came under Mali's rule.

• The kings' governors and his huge army (said to number 100,000 soldiers)
were able to maintain law and order throughout the empire. Even the
troublesome Tuaregs on the northern fringes of the empire were brought
under control.

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• The result was that traders from the north and south could move about
safely. Trade was briskly conducted and merchants came from Egypt and
Morocco to trade in the towns of Niani, Jenne, Timbuctu and Gao.

• Timbuctu and Gao were especially active and remained important when
Mali collapsed and Songhai became the main power of the Western
Sudan.

• The people of Mali took an active part in the trade by acting as

middlemen. They derived enormous wealth from the trade and they also
enjoyed a high standard of living.

• This is confirmed by such Muslim writers as Al Umari and Ibn Battuta, the
great traveller who visited Mali at the height of its power and glory.
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• We may mention that the medium of
exchange or the common currency that was
used was the white shells known as cowries.

• A barter system was also practised and it was

even said that salt was so scarce in the
southern provinces that it was exchanged for
an equal weight in gold.

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(d)Religion:
• Mansa Musa's most important contribution to the greatness of Mali can
be seen in the field of religion. By the end of his reign he had been able to
give Mali the characteristics of a Muslim state.

• Like most of the previous kings of Mali, Mansa Musa made the pilgrimage
to Mecca in 1324. The pilgrimage lasted for one year.

• What is even more significant about the pilgrimage was that it was
conducted on a scale hitherto unknown throughout the Muslim world.
Mansa Musa, the story says, was accompanied by as many as sixty
thousand attendants.

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• There were 500 slaves, each one carrying a
gold staff weighing four pounds. There were
also 100 camels each carrying loads of gold.

• Mansa Musa took along with him gold to the

value of three million pounds sterling. (worth
$2,750,976,000 or £1,839,964,800 today)

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• He passed through Cairo giving out gold in charity and gifts
before making his way to Arabia.

• He spent so much gold in Cairo that the price of gold fell and
he even had to borrow money before he could make the
return journey to the Western Sudan.

• Every opportunity was taken to advertise the extent, wealth

and the power of his Empire. This was done to attract more
traders and Muslim scholars to Mali which contributed to the
economic and cultural development of his empire.

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• He thus returned from the pilgrimage with
more traders and scholars which further
strengthened Timbuktu as the commercial and
educational center of the Western Sudan.

• As a result of this the power and wealth of

Mali became known not only throughout the
Islamic world but also in Europe.

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• He also took the opportunity of developing friendly relations with North
African rulers, especially the Sultan of the important commercial centre of
Fez.
• These friendly relations, together with the wealth, good government and
the rapid advances that Mali was making as a Muslim state, encouraged
trade between Mali and North Africa. Therefore, Mansa Musa's reign was
always regarded as one of the greatest prosperity.

• On his return from Mecca he did everything in his power to encourage the
m spread of Islam and to make it the official religion of the cities of Mali.
As a devout Muslim, he insisted that the Five Pillars of Islam were
observed: saying of prayers five times a day, attendance at the Friday
Congregational prayer, fasting during Ramadan, the giving of alms and the
pilgrimage to Mecca. He also gave great encouragement to the promotion
of Muslim education.
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• He employed Es Sahili, a Spanish architect and poet who had
accompanied him on his way from Mecca.

• Es Sahili built a magnificent palace for the king at Timbuctu and a number
of mosques in the cities of Mali. These buildings were constructed with
burnt bricks, and es Sahili is generally credited with introducing burnt
bricks and a North African style of building into the Western Sudan. This
architecture became common in the great cities of the Western Sudan.

• Mansa Musa began the practice of sending students to Morocco to

study, and the foundations of Timbuctu as centre of trade and learning
were laid during his time.

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• Mansa Musa had passed through many Muslim
states during his pilgrimage. He noticed their way of
life and features of government.

• He then tried to apply what he had seen to Mali. As

we have seen, he succeeded in introducing some
Islamic features to Mali.

• Islam, however, did not become widespread. It was a

religion only of the cities and the ruling class.
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• When he died in 1337 he left behind an empire that
stretched from the Atlantic coast to Songhai, far down the
Niger bend to the East.

• Takkeda, a noted copper-mining town, came under Mali; to

the south Mali stretched as far as the borders of the forest
region.

• Thus Mansa Musa is always remembered in the history of

Mali because he was able to preserve and extend the
foundations that were laid by Sundiata.

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• The empire was larger in his time than it was before or since
he spread its fame abroad and made a deliberate attempt to
advertise its power and wealth, mainly through his pilgrimage
to Mecca.

• Islam was given a more solid foundation than ever before in

the Western Sudan.

• The administration of Mali was also better organised than it

had been.

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 THE DECLINE OF MALI
• A century after the death of Mansa Musa, Mali had
lost its importance as the greatest power in the
Western Sudan.

• There were two important factors that were

responsible for this:

a) its own internal weaknesses;

b) external attacks.

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 Internal Factors
• Some of the kings who succeeded Mansa Musa were not as competent as
he had been.

• Mali did not possess a clear system of inheritance and the death of each
ruler was followed by disputes about who was the rightful successor.

• These disputes sometimes led to civil wars. There was a period in Mali's
history when, within ten years, there were as many as six Mansas or
rulers.

• And as we have seen, Mali was a very large territory, with different
peoples. It was also difficult to rule.

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• After Mansa Musa's death, Mall was no longer as powerful,
and outlying provinces broke away.

• Only one ruler stands out. He was Mansa Sulayman, whe

ruled in the late 14th century. During his time Mali again
became powerful.

• Mansa Sulayman pursued a policy of bringing Islam to some

of the territories conquered by Mansa Musa. He built
mosques and above all maintained law and order.

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• However, this was short-lived, for by the
beginning of the 15th century, Mali had been
reduced to the tiny state of Kangaba. 

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 External Attacks
• Mali's external problems came mainly from the Tuaregs of the Sahara and
Mossi of Yatenga. Because Mali was weakened by the end of the 14th
century, she was easily attacked.

• The Soninke state of Diara declared itself independent and the Tuaregs
conquered the northern provinces while the Mossi of Yatenga turned their
attention to the South. In the east, the rising state of Songhai threatened
Mali.

• By 1400 the Mossi carried their raids deep into Macina. Songhai was able
to reassert the independence of Gao and began to occupy Mali territory.
The Tuaregs captured the commercial towns of Arawan, Walata and
Timbuctu in about 1433 and destroyed Mali's control of the trans-Saharan
Trade.

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• Finally, from 1464 Songhai, under the kings
Sunni Ali and later Askia Mohammed, was
able to conquer parts of Mali and by the 15th
century only their original homeland of
Kangaba was left.

• Thus fell into utter collapse, the great Empire

of Mali, founded by the Mandingo of Kangaba.

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 Conclusion
• Although the empire lasted a relatively short time, it had been able,
during this time, to administer a huge area and many different peoples.

• Commercially, Mali also had controlled a vast territory, exploiting the

wealth of the Savanna and profiting from the trans-Saharan trade.

• Islam had been introduced, although It was probably only the ruling class
who were serious Muslims.

• Finally, through trade and through the pilgrimage, Mali and West Africa in
general became known to a wider world. 

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