4chapter triploblastic

acoelomates body plan

Evolutionary perspective

 Flatworms (phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, and Mesozoa) lack a coelom,

although nemerteans have a fluid-filled cavity at their anterior, or head, end,
which is used to eject the proboscis rapidly. 
Platyhelminthes

 Phylum Platyhelminthes belongs to kingdom Animalia. This phylum includes 13,000

species. The organisms are also known as flatworms. These are acoelomates and they
include many free-living and parasitic life forms.
 Members of this phylum range in size from a single-celled organism to around 2-3 feet
long.
 Characteristics of Platyhelminthes
 Platyhelminthes have the following important characteristics:
 They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and bilaterally symmetrical.
 They may be free-living or parasites.
 The body has a soft covering with or without cilia.
 Their body is dorsoventrally flattened without any segments and appears like a leaf.
 They are devoid of the anus and circulatory system but have a mouth.
 They respire by simple diffusion through the body surface.
 They have an organ level of organization.
 They do not have a digestive tract.
 The space between the body wall and organs is filled with connective tissue parenchyma which
helps in transporting the food material.
 They are hermaphrodites, i.e., both male and female organs are present in the same body.
 They reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes and asexually by regeneration by fission and
regeneration. Fertilization is internal.
 The life cycle is complicated with one or more larval stages.
 They possess the quality of regeneration.
 The flame cells help in excretion and osmoregulation.
 The nervous system comprises the brain and two longitudinal nerve cords arranged in a ladder-like
fashion.
 Unique Characteristics of Platyhelminthes
 Some of the characteristics that distinguish the organisms belonging to phylum Platyhelminthes
from others are:
 Presence of flame cells.
 Ladder-like nervous system.
 Presence of parenchyma in the body cavity.
 Self-fertilization
 Classification of Platyhelminthes
 The classification of Platyhelminthes are given below:
 Turbellaria
 Trematoda
 CTurbellaria
 These are free-living organisms found mostly in fresh water.
 The body is dorsoventrally flattened.
 Hooks and suckers are not present.
 For eg., Planaria, Otoplana
 Trematoda
 These are mostly parasitic.
 Hooks and suckers are usually present.
 Eg., Fasciola hepatica, Diplozoon
 Cestoda
 These are exclusively parasitic.
 They have hooks and suckers.
 Eg., Taenia spp., Convoluta
 A few organisms belonging to these species cause severe diseases such as Schistosomiasis, or snail fever. It is one of the
most dangerous diseases in tropical countries. Taeniasis is another disease caused by Tapeworms.
 estoda
 Examples of Platyhelminthes
 The examples of organisms belonging to phylum Platyhelminthes are:
 Dugesia (Planaria)
 These are found in freshwater ponds or slow streams. Their body possesses cilia and
has the power of regenerating the lost part. The head bears a pair of eyes and two
lateral lobes.
 Schistosoma
 It is found in the mesenteric blood vessels and hepatic portal system of humans and
is therefore known as blood fluke. It shows well-marked sexual dimorphism.
 Schistosoma causes Schistosomiasis which spreads through contaminated water. The
patient suffers from anaemia, pain, fever, liver and spleen enlargement, and
diarrhoea.
 Fasciola
 It is also known as liver fluke since it resides in the liver and bile duct of sheep and goat. It is a
hermaphrodite but cross-fertilization takes place.
 It causes fascioliasis in animals. In this, the liver of the animal enlarges and the bile ducts are
blocked. The infection weakens the muscles of the animals resulting in muscular pain. It might
also prove fatal for the animals.
 Taenia solium
 It is also known as pork tapeworm and is found in all the countries where pork is consumed.
They live as parasites in the small intestine of human beings and their larva are found in the
muscles of the pigs. It is a hermaphrodite and undergoes self-fertilization.
 Taenia solium causes taeniasis where the patient experiences abdominal pain, anaemia,
indigestion, restlessness and false appetite.
 There are other organisms such as Taenia saginata that is transferred through beef in the
human intestines, and Echinococcus granulosus that lives in the intestine of cats and dogs.
turbelleria

 With over 3000 members (species), Turbellaria is a class of the 

phylum Platyhelminthes. As such, they are multicellular flatworms
characterized by flattened appearance. They can be found in many aquatic
habitats as well as given terrestrial environments. For this reason, they are
very common and easy to find.
 For the most part, turbellarians (turbellarian worms) are free-living organisms
in their natural environment. However, a few species exist as commensals or
parasites in certain hosts (some marine fish and turtles, etc). They are also
very colorful with different species exhibiting a variety of colors ranging from
brown and black to blue and green etc.
 Temnocephala lamothei
 Dugesia aenigma
 Dugesia bifida
 Planaria simplex
 Girardia dorotocephala
 Girardia tigrina
 The majority (about two-thirds) of turbellarians are small in size, measuring between 0.8 and
2mm in length. However, as already mentioned, a few species are larger in size and can grow
to be several centimeters long.
 Like many other members of the phylum Platyhelminthes, turbellarians have a dorsoventrally
flattened body that is bilaterally symmetrical. The flattened body shape in these organisms is
attributed to the fact that flatworms do not have a true body cavity, as such, they are known
as acoelomates. 

 Apart from variations in size, members of this group also exhibit various differences in shape.
While some of the species, e.g.  Pseudobiceros bedfordi and Pseudoceros dimidiatus have a
leaf-like shape (with pointed ends), others, like Planarians, have a ribbon-like appearance.
 Others, like members of the genus Bipalium, also known as land planarians, are characterized
by a slender, elongated body with a uniquely shaped head (thus the name hammerhead). Due
to these differences, different groups under the Class Turbellaria can be identified based on
shape. 
 Body Structure

 Being multicellular organisms, turbellarians have a complex body structure that consists of a number of layers. 

 These include:

Epidermis

 The epidermis of turbellarians is the outermost covering/layer that originates from the ectoderm. As the outermost layer, it's in direct
contact with the environment (outer environment) and therefore acts as the protective layer of the organism. It's also in contact with the
basement membrane which is located below the epidermis.

 Based on earlier studies of this layer, four types of the epidermis were identified. These include the neoophoran epidermis (associated with
neoophorans and with a well-developed basement membrane), the macrostomid epidermis (common in members of the order Macrostomida
and Haplopharyngida where the basement membrane is lacking), the third type found in members of the orders Acoela and
Nemertodermatida that lack the intercellular matrix and the fourth type found in Catenulida where the basement membrane is also absent.
 Depending on the species, the epidermis may be ciliated while some are characterized by microvilli. The basement membrane is located
below the epidermis and thus acts as a barrier between the epidermis and internal layers of the body wall. 
 Muscular Layers

 Turbellarians have two sets of muscles below the basement membrane. These include the outer layer which consists of circular muscle and the
inner layer that consists of longitudinal muscle. Apart from defining the general morphology of the organism, these muscles also play an important
role in movement and changes in shape.
 For instance, by contracting, the inner longitudinal muscles cause the worm to shorten which increases its diameter. Contraction of the outer
circular muscles allows the organism to recover to the original shape/length. Through these actions, the organism can move in a worm-like manner.
 Apart from these two layers of muscles, studies have shown these organisms to have an additional layer (diagonal muscle fibers). However, they are
not involved in locomotion. 

Parenchyma

 The parenchyma consists of poorly organized cells which are located between the longitudinal muscle layer and gastrodermis (as such, they are
among the cells that fill the body cavity). This region also consists of some cells of the epidermis (sunken gland cell bodies), stem cells as well as
several types of the parenchyma which makes up the largest population. 
 Gastrodermis

 The gastrodermis is the innermost layer. It originates from the endodermis and consists of one layer of cells that line the digestive tract.
Some of the cells in this layer include epitheliomuscular cells and gland cells involved in the secretion of digestive enzymes as well as mucus.
As such, this layer is involved in both the digestion and absorption of nutrients. 

Feeding/Nutrition

 In marine and freshwater habitats, where they exist as bottom dwellers, Turbellarians move by means of muscular undulations as well as by
use of cilia which are located on the underside (ventral surface). In addition, they have also been shown to produce mucus which allows them
to adhere to the substrate as they move about. The ability to effectively move about in their environment is particularly beneficial when it
comes to feeding. 
 In aquatic habitats, Turbellarians are carnivores and therefore feed on small invertebrates in their surroundings. The ability to glide over
surfaces/substrates using cilia and muscular undulations make it possible for them to hunt prey for food. Turbellarians are also scavengers
and have to move around in search of dead animals in their surroundings. 
 As scavengers, they can feed on the remains of larger organisms. As parasites or commensals, Turbellarians attach themselves to fish and
other organisms in their surrounding (as ectoparasites) and either feed on material on the surface of these organisms or on their tissue. 
 Depending on the species, the mouth part of Turbellarians may be ciliated or
consisting of a muscular complex organ. While feeding, the pharyngeal cavity
extends allowing the worms to move food material into the simple digestive
tract. 
 Digestion of food material has been shown to occur even before the food
materials are ingested. Here, Pharyngeal glands produce enzymes that break
them down into small portions. These portions are then ingested before they
are engulfed by cells in the digestive cavity where they are further broken
down (in food vacuoles) to complete the digestion process.
 Given that turbellarians lack an anal opening, undigested food material are
regurgitated and released through the mouth opening. 
 Nervous System and Sensory Organs

 While Turbellarians have a simple nervous system, this may vary between different species. For Turbellarians with a more centralized nervous system (e.g.
Planarians), it consists of a simple brain (ganglion), nerve cords as well as a sub-epidermal network of nerves. In these species, the simple brain is built from
the thickened anterior part of the ventral cords and is located at the anterior/head region of the organism. 

 In some of the Turbellarians, however, the nervous system is more primitive and is known as the diffused nervous system. Compared to the central nervous
system found in Planarians, this system consists of a subepidermal nerve plexus. 
 This system lacks a brain (ganglion) region that normally consists of a large concentration of nerves. As such, it simply consists of nerves that are distributed
within the organisms. Because of its simple nature, this system does not allow for a prolonged or coordinated response.  
  
 In addition to the nervous system, turbellarians also have a few sensory organs that allow them to appropriately respond to their environment. For instance,
they are equipped with chemoreceptors that make it possible for them to sense the location of food material.
 Some examples of chemoreceptors in turbellarians are auricles (protrusions located on the head region), tentacles as well as ciliated pits. Using these
receptors, they are able to sense the direction in which food sources are available and thus move in the identified site. 

 Apart from chemoreceptors, turbellarians also have photoreceptors that allow them to detect the presence of light. These receptors occur in the form of
eyespots that are located in the anterior region/head part of the organism.
 Unlike eyes, however, these receptors are unable to form images that would otherwise allow turbellarians to visualize objects in their surroundings. These
receptors are particularly important given that they allow Turbellarians to avoid sunlight. For this reason, they are commonly associated with negative
phototaxis behavior. 
 Respiration - Because they do not have respiratory organs, respiration in
Turbellarians occurs through the body wall (exchange of gases through the body
wall).
  
 Glands - Turbellarians have a number of glands including rhabdites (produce a
protective mucus), adhesive glands (produce a sticky substance used for
adhesion), and releaser glands (produce a substance that dissolves attachment).
 They use protonephridia for osmoregulation - removal of excess water. 
  
 Regeneration

 Unlike geckos and iguanas which are only capable of regenerating certain parts of their bodies (tail and limbs),
Turbellarians are able to regenerate lost parts even when they are cut into several segments. This means that if the
organism is cut into two or three segments/parts, each part will regenerate the lost parts (head region, posterior
portion) in order to form a new whole organism.
 Here, however, it's worth noting that for the most part, this is common in species that can reproduce asexually. Unlike
these species (which produce asexually), regeneration in other species may result in an organism with imperfect parts
(e.g. poorly formed head etc).
 Particularly for species that rely on sexual reproduction, regeneration can only occur if the organism is cut at specific
parts (e.g. parts of the body with the simple brain/cerebral ganglion). For those that produce asexually, however,
regeneration is not limited and they are able to reproduce the lost part including lost organs/structures. 

  
 * Therefore, for some of the species, regeneration is not only important for reproducing the lost parts of the body, but
also for reproduction purposes. 
 Reproduction

 With regards to reproduction, turbellarians are hermaphrodites/monoecious and thus each individual possesses
both the male and female reproductive structures. Here, the reproductive anatomy is the product of the
mesodermal tissues located in the parenchyma layer. 

 The anatomy of the male reproductive system is characterized by several pairs of testes each of which is
located on one side of the organism. Here, the sperm ducts open up into the seminal vesicle where the sperm
cells are stored.
 The other organ of the male reproductive system is a protrusible/extendable phallus (sperm ducts join to form
the ejaculation duct which extends into the phallus). The female reproductive system, on the other hand,
consists of multiple pairs of ovaries as well as oviducts that open into the genital chamber. 
 For fertilization to take place, two adult members come together for mutual copulation to occur. Depending on
the species, some Turbellarians have more than one penile structure as well as more than one genital pores
that serves to receive the sperm produced during copulation.
 In cases where the phallus is modified to form a hollow and sharp stylet, copulation is
characterized by stabbing the partner with this structure in order to inject sperm cells through
the body wall. Ultimately, the sperm cells reach the ovaries having passed through the oviducts
where fertilization takes place. 
 Following fertilization, eggs are released with a cocoon covering the eggs as they develop. While
development from embryo to the adult forms is a direct process for the majority of turbellarians,
this process may involve the production of a larval stage (before they develop to adults forms) in
some species. 
  
 * Turbellarians produce a few eggs.

 * Summer eggs have a thin shell and tend to hatch rapidly while winter/dormant eggs have a
thicker and more resistant shell which allows them to survive adverse environmental conditions.
 Asexual Reproduction

 While turbellarians are capable of sexual reproduction, reproduction can also

occur asexually. This mode of reproduction is known as transverse fission.
 During asexual reproduction, a constriction starts forming behind the pharynx.
Ultimately, the constriction divides the organism into two zooids that separate
and grow the part of the body that is missing. This mode of reproduction does
not require gamete exchange to take place. 

  
monogenea

 The Monogenea are generally ectoparasites of fish species, attaching to the

external surface, fins, gills, eyes and oral cavities of the host animal. A few species
can infect the internal tissues such as the blood vessels or digestive tract, and
several species can parasitise amphibians and freshwater turtles. Monogeneans are
easily distinguished from the Trematoda and Cestoda by the haptor, the posterior
attachment organ. Adults can reach a few centimetres in length, but most species
are only a few millimetres long when mature.

Distribution and diversity

 There are approximately 5000 species of monogeneans described worldwide, with
318 species in 125 genera and 28 families listed in the most recent checklist of
species found in Australia.
 Life cycle
 Monogeneans are usually strictly host specific, and have a single host lifecycle. Adult
monogeneans are hermaphroditic and lay their eggs directly into the water, from which a
free-swimming larva will hatch. The larva must infect a host to complete the lifecycle.

Feeding
 Many species of monogeneans are able to move freely around on the surface of their fish
host, eating mucus and epithelial cells, whilst a few species will remain attached to a
single site. Monogeneans attach to the host with the posterior haptor, but another
attachment and feeding organ is found anteriorly, associated with the mouth and pharynx.

Ecology
 Monogeneans parasitise marine, brackish and freshwater fishes, and as such are found in a
wide variety of aquatic habitats.
 Trematoda is a class of flatworms known as flukes or trematodes. They are 
obligate internal parasites with a complex life cycle requiring at least two 
hosts. The intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs, is usually
a snail. The definitive host, where the flukes sexually reproduce, is a 
vertebrate. Infection by trematodes can cause disease in all five traditional
vertebrate classes: mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish.
 Etymology[edit]
 Trematodes are commonly referred to as flukes. This term can be traced back
to the Old English name for flounder, and refers to the flattened, rhomboidal
 shape of the organisms.
 Taxonomy[edit]
 There are 18,000[1] to 24,000[2] known species of trematodes, divided into two
subclasses — the Aspidogastrea and the Digenea. Aspidogastrea is the smaller
subclass, comprising 61 species. These flukes mainly infect bivalves and 
bony fishes.[3] Digenea — which comprise the majority of trematodes — are
found in certain mollusks and vertebrates.
 Trematodes of medical
 Importance
 Flukes that cause disease in humans are often classified based on the organ system they infect.
For example:
 Blood flukes inhabit the blood in some stages of their life cycle. Blood flukes that cause disease
in humans include Trichobilharzia regenti, which causes swimmer's itch, and seven species of
genus Schistosoma which cause schistosomiasis: S. guineensis, S.haematobium, S. intercalatum
, S. japonicum, S. malayensis, S. mansoni, S. mekongi. As a definitive host, humans are
infected when the cercariae (the larval forms of trematodes) penetrate the skin. Any contact
with water containing these cercariae can potentially result in infection. Adult blood flukes can
live for years in human or animal reservoir hosts.[4] S.haematobium and S. japonicum are of
particular importance, as these are carcinogenic parasites. S.haematobium, which infects the 
urinary bladder, is among the most important causes of bladder cancer in humans.[5][6] This
organism is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a 
Group 1 (extensively proven) carcinogen.[7] S. japonicum is associated with the development of 
liver cancer, and is classified as a Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) carcinogen.[7]
 Liver flukes are commonly found within bile ducts, liver, and gallbladder in certain mammalian
and avian species. They include Clonorchis sinensis, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Dicrocoelium
hospes, Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola hepatica, Opisthorchis felineus, and Opisthorchis viverrini
. Clonorchis and Opisthorchis are carcinogenic parasites that are strongly associated with the
development of cancer of the bile ducts.[8][9]
 Lung flukes: there are ten species of lung flukes that infect humans, causing paragonimiasis
 Trematodes are flattened oval or worm-like animals, usually no more than a few centimeters in
length, although species as small as 1 millimetre (0.039 in) are known. Their most distinctive
external feature is the presence of two suckers, one close to the mouth, and the other on the
underside of the animal.[12]
 The body surface of trematodes comprises a tough syncytial tegument, which helps protect against 
digestive enzymes in those species that inhabit the gut of larger animals. It is also the surface of gas
exchange; there are no respiratory organs.[12]
 The mouth is located at the forward end of the animal, and opens into a muscular, pumping pharynx.
The pharynx connects, via a short oesophagus, to one or two blind-ending caeca, which occupy most
of the length of the body. In some species, the caeca are themselves branched. As in other
flatworms, there is no anus, and waste material must be egested through the mouth.[12]
 Although the excretion of nitrogenous waste occurs mostly through the tegument, trematodes do
possess an excretory system, which is instead mainly concerned with osmoregulation. This consists of
two or more protonephridia, with those on each side of the body opening into a collecting duct. The
two collecting ducts typically meet up at a single bladder, opening to the exterior through one or
two pores near the posterior end of the animal.[12]
 The brain consists of a pair of ganglia in the head region, from which two or three pairs of 
nerve cords run down the length of the body. The nerve cords running along the ventral
surface are always the largest, while the dorsal cords are present only in the Aspidogastrea.
Trematodes generally lack any specialized sense organs, although some ectoparasitic species
do possess one or two pairs of simple ocelli.[12]
 Body wall musculature: Formed of three different muscle layers: circular, longitudinal, and
diagonal. The outermost layer is formed by the circular muscle fibers, directly behind that
are the longitudinal muscle fibers. The inner layer is formed by the diagonal muscle fibers.
Together these muscle fibers form the segmented body wall of trematodes.[13]
 Oral sucker and acetabulum: In some species of Trematoda, such as T. bragai, there is an 
acetabulum. This saucer-shaped organ is attached to the oral sucker in some Trematodes and
other parasitic worms. This allows for parasitic worms to attach to their host by penetrating
the host’s tissue with spines lining the acetabulum organ. In trematodes, the oral sucker is
linked to the pharynx via a canal composed of meridional, equatorial, and radial muscle
fibers.[13] Together, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus form the foregut in Trematodes
 Digenea (Gr. Dis – double, Genos – race) is a class of trematodes in the 
Platyhelminthes phylum, consisting of parasitic flatworms (known as flukes)
with a syncytial tegument and, usually, two suckers, one ventral and one
oral. Adults commonly live within the digestive tract, but occur throughout
the organ systems of all classes of vertebrates. Once thought to be related to
the Monogenea, it is now recognised that they are closest to the 
Aspidogastrea and that the Monogenea are more closely allied with the 
Cestoda. Around 6,000 species have been described to date.
Parasites
 Trematodes, or flukes, are parasitic flatworms with unique life cycles involving sexual reproduction in
mammalian and other vertebrate definitive hosts and asexual reproduction in snail intermediate hosts.
These organisms are divided into four groups on the basis of their final habitats in humans: (1) the
hermaphroditic liver flukes which reside in the bile ducts and infect humans on ingestion of watercress
(Fasciola) or raw fish (Clonorchis and Opisthorchis); (2) the hermaphroditic intestinal fluke
(Fasciolopsis), which infects humans on ingestion of water chestnuts; (3) the hermaphroditic lung fluke
(Paragonimus), which infects humans on ingestion of raw crabs or crayfish; and (4) the bisexual blood
flukes (Schistosoma), which live in the intestinal or vesical (urinary bladder) venules and infect humans
by direct penetration through the skin.
 Fascioliasis is a cosmopolitan zoonosis; sporadic cases in humans have appeared in most parts of the
world. The remaining hermaphroditic fluke infections of humans are confined largely to Asia.
Schistosomiasis occurs in South America, the Caribbean, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, and is
spreading in many areas due to the introduction of dams and irrigation systems.
 Flukes do not multiply in humans, so the intensity of infection is related to the degree of exposure to
the infective larvae. In most endemic areas, the majority of infected individuals have light or moderate
worm burdens. Overt disease occurs largely in the relatively small proportion of the population with a
heavy worm burden, although genetic predisposition may also play a role. Pathology may be caused by
the worms themselves (as with liver flukes, which damage the bile ducts) or by their eggs (for example,
schistosome eggs, which induce granulomatous inflammation in the venules or tissues). Treatment of all
fluke infections has been greatly improved by the introduction of the anthelminthic drug praziquantel.
 Schistosomiasis
 Three major disease syndromes occur in schistosomiasis: schistosome dermatitis, acute
schistosomiasis, and chronic schistosomiasis. The first is a pruritic rash that appears after
repeated exposure to cercariae, usually those of birds and small mammals. Acute
schistosomiasis (Katayama fever) begins 4 to 8 weeks after primary exposure and may
last for a few weeks. It appears most commonly in Schistosoma japonicum infection, is
much less common in S mansoni infections, and is seen rarely in patients infected with S
haematobium. Acute schistosomiasis is the self-limited febrile illness that occurs on
primary exposure to the parasite. It is characterized by cough, hepatosplenomegaly,
lymphadenopathy, and eosinophilia. It may be fatal.
 A wide variety of symptoms have been associated with chronic schistosomiasis mansoni
and japonica, including fatigue, abdominal pain, and intermittent diarrhea or dysentery.
Over the past 15 years, however, field studies have demonstrated that few infected
individualseven those with heavy infectionsshow such symptoms. Similar findings were
reported in hospitalized patients in the United Kingdom. In schistosomiasis haematobia,
dysuria and hematuria are frequently seen in the early stages of infection. Chronic
disease may appear many years later, developing usually in individuals with a heavy
worm burden. In schistosomiasis japonica and mansoni, chronic disease is characterized
by hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, portal hypertension, and bleeding esophageal varices.
In schistosomiasis haematobia, inflammation and fibrosis of the bladder and ureters
occur; obstruction of the ureters leads to hydronephrosis and eventually to uremia.
 Hermaphroditic Flukes
 The signs and symptoms of infection with the hermaphroditic flukes are related largely to
the location of the adult wormsthe bile ducts (Fasciola hepatica, Clonorchis sinensis,
Opisthorchis viverrini), the intestines (Fasciolopsis buski), or the lungs (Paragonimus
westermani). Fasciola hepatica infection is the one exception, in that the disease has two
distinct phases. The first occurs in the initial 6 to 9 weeks of infection when the larvae
migrate through the liver; the second begins when they enter the bile ducts. The acute
clinical syndrome is characterized by prolonged fever, pain in the right hypochondrium, and
sometimes hepatomegaly, asthenia, and urticaria; also marked eosinophilia usually occurs
during this period. Asymptomatic acute infection has been reported in England and seems to
be common in Peru. After the flukes enter the bile ducts, the symptoms decline and then
disappear completely. Although animals with particularly heavy worm burdens may develop
chronic biliary tract disease, this condition is rare in humans, and when reported is usually
an incidental finding at surgery or autopsy.
 In contrast, an acute syndrome does not occur in clonorchiasis and opisthorchiasis because
the larval flukes enter directly into the bile ducts. Most individuals
with Clonorchis and Opisthorchis infections show no significant signs or symptoms of disease.
Pathologic studies have revealed no gross changes in the liver in mild, early infections.
Despite these generally negative findings, patients with severe chronic disease, manifested
by cholangitis, cholangiohepatitis and cholangiocarcinoma, occasionally appear at hospitals.
 Fasciolopsiasis caused by the intestinal fluke also appears to be associated with few or
no disease manifestations in individuals examined in field environments. In a controlled
study involving clinical examination, evaluation of growth and development, hematologic
studies, and screening tests for intestinal malabsorption, no significant differences
between infected and uninfected subjects were found. However, cases of severe clinical
illness characterized by diarrhea, abdominal pain, edema (often facial), and passage of
undigested food in the feces have been reported in patients with heavy infections.
 Paragonimiasis due to the lung fluke usually comes to the attention of the physician
when the patient complains of cough or intermittent hemoptysis. Profuse expectoration
and chest pain of a pleuritic type are also found. Nevertheless, clinical studies indicate
that in most endemic areas most infections are light or moderate and are associated with
few signs or symptoms. Cerebral paragonimiasis is encountered in highly endemic regions
and is manifested as Jacksonian epilepsy, tumors, or embolism of the brain.
 The trematodes or flukes are multicellular flatworms. Different species range in length
from less than 1 mm to several centimeters. The flukes of medical importance are all
digenetic, reproducing sexually in a definitive vertebrate host and asexually in a snail
intermediate host. Flukes have a variety of different life cycle stages (Figs. 88-1 and 
88-2; also see Ch. 86,Figs. 86-1 and 86-2). Adult male and female or hermaphroditic
flukes inhabit the definitive vertebrate host and lay eggs. Free-swimming ciliated
miracidia hatch from the eggs and infect snails, in which they give rise to sporocysts and
rediae. The snails emit cercariae, which infect the vertebrate host either directly or via
an encysted form known as a metacercaria.
cestodia
 Cestoda is a class of parasitic worms in the flatworm phylum (Platyhelminthes).
Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass Eucestoda;
they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as tapeworms. Their bodies
consist of many similar units known as proglottids—essentially packages of eggs
which are regularly shed into the environment to infect other organisms.
Species of the other subclass, Cestodaria, are mainly fish infecting parasites.
 All cestodes are parasitic; many have complex life histories, including a stage
in a definitive (main) host in which the adults grow and reproduce, often for
years, and one or two intermediate stages in which the larvae develop in other
hosts. Typically the adults live in the digestive tracts of vertebrates, while the
larvae often live in the bodies of other animals, either vertebrates or
invertebrates. For example, Diphyllobothrium has at least two intermediate
hosts, a crustacean and then one or more freshwater fish; its definitive host is a
mammal. Some cestodes are host-specific, while others are parasites of a wide
variety of hosts. Some six thousand species have been described; probably all
vertebrates can host at least one species
 The adult tapeworm has a scolex (head), a short neck, and a strobila (segmented
body) formed of proglottids. Tapeworms anchor themselves to the inside of the
intestine of their host using their scolex, which typically has hooks, suckers, or
both. They have no mouth, but absorb nutrients directly from the host's gut. The
neck continually produces proglottids, each one containing a reproductive tract;
mature proglottids are full of eggs, and fall off to leave the host, either
passively in the feces or actively moving. All tapeworms are hermaphrodites,
with each individual having both male and female reproductive organs.
 Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat
undercooked meat such as pork (Taenia solium), beef (T. saginata), and fish (
Diphyllobothrium), or if they live in, or eat food prepared in, conditions of poor
hygiene (Hymenolepis or Echinococcus species). The unproven concept of using
tapeworms as a slimming aid has been touted since around 1900
 There are two subclasses in class Cestoda, the Cestodaria and the Eucestoda.
By far the most common and widespread are the Eucestoda, with only a few
species of unusual worms in subclass Cestodaria. The cyclophyllideans are the
most important to humans because they infect people and livestock. Two
important tapeworms are the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, and the beef
tapeworms.
 Adult morphology
 Adult tapeworms share a basic body structure. All have a scolex, sometimes
colloquially referred to as the "head," a "neck," and one or more proglottids,
which are sometimes called "segments." These are the source of the name
"tapeworm," because they look like a strip of tape. All cestodes have a nerve
ring in the scolex with lateral trunks passing through the rest of the body.
 Scolex
 The Scolex or "head" of the worm attaches to the intestine of the definitive host. In some groups, the scolex is dominated by
bothria, which are sometimes called "sucking grooves," and function like suction cups. Other groups have hooks and suckers
that aid in attachment. Cyclophyllid cestodes can be identified by the presence of four suckers on their scolex, though they
may have other structures.
 While the scolex is often the most distinctive part of an adult tapeworm, it is often unnoticed in a clinical setting as it is inside
the patient. Thus, identifying eggs and proglottids in feces is important.
 Neck
 The Neck of a tapeworm is a relatively undifferentiated mass of cells that divide to form new proglottid "segments." This is
where all growth in an adult tapeworm occurs.
 Proglottids
 The body is composed of successive units posterior to the scolex, the proglottids. The sum of the proglottids is called a
strobila, which is thin, resembling a strip of tape, and is the source of the common name tapeworm. Like some other
flatworms, cestodes use flame cells (protonephridia) for excretion, which are located in proglottids.
 Mature or gravid proglottids are released from the mature tapeworm and leave the host in its feces.
 Because each proglottid contains the male and female reproductive structures, they can reproduce independently. It has been
suggested by some biologists that each should be considered a single organism, and that the tapeworm is actually a colony of
proglottids.
 Tapeworm Digestion
 Cestodes lack a digestive system, and simply obtain nutrients from the
intestines of their hosts. Tapeworms have an outer body covering which is
known as a tegument, through which they absorb nutrients. A digestive
system is unnecessary in these worms, as digestion is completed by the host
and would be redundant if this process occurred within the cestode as well.
 The tapeworm life cycle typically encompasses different developmental
stages which must be completed within the bodies of different hosts. The
tapeworm life cycle begins with eggs, which are passed through the feces of
the definitive host and then consumed by the intermediate host. The small,
round eggs hatch within the digestive system of the of the intermediate host.
Next, the larvae go on to burrow into either the blood or lymphatic vessels of
this host, and move into the skeletal muscles where they encyst, and develop
into cysticerci. Cysticerci, which also referred to informally as bladder worms
and appear as larval cysts, develop a scolex during this period. The
development process is then halted until raw or undercooked cysticerci are
consumed by the definitive host. After consumption, the cysticerci attach to
the intestine of the definitive host where these larvae go on to develop into
their adult forms.
tapeworms parasites in humans
 Tapeworm infection comes in two forms:
 Intestinal tapeworms
 Intestinal tapeworms are adult tapeworms that have hatched and matured inside the
intestines of a host animal. The mature tapeworms attach to your intestinal walls and
absorb nutrients from the food digesting there. These tapeworms often cause no
noticeable symptoms, and many people don’t realize they're infected. However, a severe
infection can cause nutritional deficiencies, unexplained weight loss, nausea or diarrhea.
Some tapeworms can live up to 30 years and grow up to 30 feet long.
 You might hear your healthcare provider refer to your tapeworm infection as “taeniasis.”
This term refers to an infection by tapeworms from the genus Taenia. Taenia
solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia asiatica (Asian
tapeworm — also from pork) are all species that target humans as their definitive host.
However, other species also infect human intestines, including Diphyllobothrium
latum (fish tapeworm) and Hymenolepis nana (dwarf tapeworm — a smaller variety).
 Invasive tapeworm larval infection
 An invasive larval infection can happen if tapeworm larvae in your intestines migrate outside of your intestines and
enter your bloodstream and other organs. The larvae adhere to your insides and form cysts there — pockets of fluid
that grow around the larvae as they grow. These cysts can cause a variety of complications, depending on where
they are. Cysts in your lungs, liver or heart can grow big enough to disrupt those organs’ normal functioning. Cysts
that adhere to your spinal cord or brain can cause neurological symptoms, such as seizures.
 You can have a larval infection with or without an intestinal tapeworm. The pork tapeworm Taenia solium causes
both intestinal infections and invasive larval infection. (The larval infection is known as cysticercosis.) Other
tapeworm species only infect humans as larvae. These infections go by different names depending on the species
— cystic hydatid disease (echinococcosis), alveolar disease, sparganosis and coenurosis — but they all manifest in
the same way, as cysts. Some cysts don’t cause any trouble, but some do and you may need someone to remove
them.
 How common is tapeworm infection in humans?
 Tapeworm infection occurs around the world, particularly in countries where people commonly eat raw meat and
fish and where sanitation is less rigorous. In the U.S., tapeworm infection is rare, but U.S. citizens can get an
infection while traveling and bring it back with them. Worldwide, tapeworm infection rates are difficult to
measure. Tapeworms often cause no noticeable symptoms, and many countries lack the resources to diagnose
everyone who has symptoms. They may be more common than we can tell.
 Nemertea is a phylum of animals also known as ribbon worms or proboscis
worms, consisting of 1300 known species.[2][3] Most ribbon worms are very
slim, usually only a few millimeters wide, although a few have relatively short
but wide bodies. Many have patterns of yellow, orange, red and green
coloration. The foregut, stomach and intestine run a little below the midline
of the body, the anus is at the tip of the tail, and the mouth is under the
front. A little above the gut is the rhynchocoel, a cavity which mostly runs
above the midline and ends a little short of the rear of the body. All species
have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts to
emerge just above the mouth to capture the animal's prey with venom. A
highly extensible muscle in the back of the rhynchocoel pulls the proboscis in
when an attack ends. A few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have
suckers at the front and back ends, with which they attach to a host.
Phylum nemertea

 The brain is a ring of four ganglia, positioned around the rhynchocoel near the animal's front
end. At least a pair of ventral nerve cords connect to the brain and run along the length of
the body. Most nemerteans have various chemoreceptors, and on their heads some species
have a number of pigment-cup ocelli, which can detect light but can not form an image.
Nemerteans respire through the skin. They have at least two lateral vessels which are joined
at the ends to form a loop, and these and the rhynchocoel are filled with fluid. There is no
heart, and the flow of fluid depends on contraction of muscles in the vessels and the body
wall. To filter out soluble waste products, flame cells are embedded in the front part of the
two lateral fluid vessels, and remove the wastes through a network of pipes to the outside.
 All nemerteans move slowly, using their external cilia to glide on surfaces on a trail of slime,
while larger species use muscular waves to crawl, and some swim by dorso-ventral
 undulations. A few live in the open ocean while the rest find or make hiding places on the
bottom. About a dozen species inhabit freshwater, mainly in the tropics and subtropics, and
another dozen species live on land in cool, damp places. Most nemerteans are carnivores,
feeding on annelids, clams and crustaceans. Some species of nemerteans are scavengers, and
a few live commensally inside the mantle cavity of molluscs.
 Respiration and circulatory system
 Nemerteans lack specialized gills, and respiration occurs over the surface of the body, which is long and
sometimes flattened. Like other animals with thick body walls, they use fluid circulation rather than 
diffusion to move substances through their bodies. The circulatory system consists of the rhynchocoel and
peripheral vessels,[2 while their blood is contained in the main body cavity.
 ]
 The fluid in the rhynchocoel moves substances to and from the proboscis, and functions as a fluid 
skeleton in everting the proboscis and in burrowing. The vessels circulate fluid round the whole body and
the rhynchocoel provides its own local circulation.
 The circulatory vessels are a system of coeloms.[27]
 In the simplest type of circulatory system, two lateral vessels are joined at the ends to form a loop.
However, many species have additional long-wise and cross-wise vessels. There is no heart nor pumping
vessels,] and the flow of fluid depends on contraction of both the vessels and the body wall's muscles. In
some species, circulation is intermittent, and fluid ebbs and flows in the long-wise vessels.
 The fluid in the vessels is usually colorless, but in some species it contains cells that are yellow, orange,
green or red. The red type contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen, but the function of the other pigments
is unknown.
excretion

 Nemertea use organs called protonephridia[25] to excrete soluble waste

products, especially nitrogenous by-products of cellular metabolism.[29] In
nemertean protonephridia, flame cells which filter out the wastes are
embedded in the front part of the two lateral fluid vessels. The flame cells
remove the wastes into two collecting ducts, one on either side, and each
duct has one or more nephridiopores through which the wastes exit.
Semiterrestrial and freshwater nemerteans have many more flame cells than
marines, sometimes thousands. The reason may be that osmoregulation is
more difficult in non-marine environment
central nervous-system

 The central nervous-system consists of a brain and paired ventral nerve cords that connect

to the brain and run along the length of the body. The brain is a ring of four ganglia,
masses of nerve cells, positioned round the rhynchocoel near its front end [30] – while the
brains of most protostome invertebrates encircle the foregut.[31] Most nemertean species
have just one pair of nerve cords, many species have additional paired cords, and some
species also have a dorsal cord. [30] In some species the cords lie within the skin, but in
most they are deeper, inside the muscle layers. [32] The central nervous-system is often red
or pink because it contains hemoglobin. This stores oxygen for peak activity or when the
animal experiences anoxia, for example while burrowing in oxygen-free sediments.[30]
 Some species have paired cerebral organs, sacs whose only openings are to the outside.
Others species have unpaired evertible organs on the front of their heads. Some have slits
along the side of the head or grooves obliquely across the head, and these may be
associated with paired cerebral organs. All of these are thought to be chemoreceptors,
and the cerebral organs may also aiding osmoregulation. Small pits in the epidermis
appear to be sensors
 Larger species often break up when stimulated, and the fragments often grow into
full individuals. Some species fragment routinely and even parts near the tail can
grow full bodies. [36] But this kind of extreme regeneration is restricted to only a
few types of nemerteans, and is assumed to be a derived feature. [37] All 
reproduce sexually, and most species are gonochoric (the sexes are separate),[10][36]
 but all the freshwater forms are hermaphroditic.[26]
 Nemerteans often have numerous temporary gonads (ovaries or testes), forming a
row down each side of the body in the mesenchyme.[26][36] Temporary gonoducts
 (ducts from which the ova or sperm are emitted[38]), one per gonad, are built when
the ova and sperm are ready.[36] The eggs are generally fertilised externally. Some
species shed them into the water, some lay them in a burrow or tube, and some
protect them by cocoons or gelatinous strings.[36] Some bathypelagic (deep sea)
species have internal fertilization, and some of these are viviparous, growing their 
embryos in the female's body.[26][36]
 The zygote (fertilised egg) divides by spiral cleavage and grows by determinate development,
[36]
 in which the fate of a cell can usually be predicted from its predecessors in the process of
division.[17] The embryos of most taxa develop either directly to form juveniles (like the adult
but smaller) or to form planuliform larvae. The planuliform larva stage may be short-lived and 
lecithotrophic ("yolky") before becoming a juvenile,[36] or may be planktotrophic, swimming for
some time and eating prey larger than microscopic particles.[31] However, many members of
the order Heteronemertea and the palaeonemertean family Hubrechtiidae form a pilidium
 larva, which can capture unicellular algae and which Maslakova describes as like a deerstalker
 cap with the ear flaps pulled down. It has a gut which lies across the body, a mouth between
the "ear flaps", but no anus. A small number of imaginal discs form, encircling the archenteron
 (developing gut) and coalesce to form the juvenile. When it is fully formed, the juvenile
bursts out of the larva body and usually eats it during this catastrophic metamorphosis.[31] This
larval stage is unique in that there are no Hox genes involved during development, which are
only found in the juveniles developing inside the larvae.[39]
 The species Paranemertes peregrina has been reported as having a life span of around 18
months
phylum gastrotricha
 The gastrotrichs (phylum Gastrotricha), commonly referred to
as hairybellies or hairybacks, are a group of microscopic (0.06-3.0 mm), cylindrical, 
acoelomate animals, and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and 
marine environments. They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton, the
layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other 
water bodies. The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other
submerged surfaces, but a few species are terrestrial and live on land in the film of
water surrounding grains of soil. Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders, the 
Macrodasyida which are marine (except for two species), and the Chaetonotida, some
of which are marine and some freshwater. Nearly 800 species of gastrotrich have been
described.
 Gastrotrichs have a simple body plan with a head region, with a brain and sensory
organs, and a trunk with a simple gut and the reproductive organs. They have adhesive
glands with which they can anchor themselves to the substrate and cilia with which
they move around. They feed on detritus, sucking up organic particles with their
muscular pharynx. They are hermaphrodites, the marine species producing eggs which
develop directly into miniature adults. The freshwater species are parthenogenetic,
producing unfertilised eggs, and at least one species is viviparous. Gastrotrichs mature
with great rapidity and have lifespans of only a few days.
 Gastrotrich reproduction and reproductive behaviour has been little studied. That of
macrodasiyds probably most represents that of the ancestral lineage and these more
primitive gastrotrichs are simultaneous hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female
sex organs. There is generally a single pair of gonads, the anterior portion of which
contains sperm-producing cells and the posterior portion producing ova. The sperm is
sometimes packaged in spermatophores and is released through male gonopores that open,
often temporarily, on the underside of the animal, roughly two-thirds of the way along the
body. A copulatory organ on the tail collects the sperm and transfers it to the partner's 
seminal receptacle through the female gonopore. Details of the process and the behaviour
involved vary with the species, and there is a range of different accessory reproductive
organs. During copulation, the "male" individual uses his copulatory organ to transfer sperm
to his partner's gonopore and fertilisation is internal. The fertilised eggs are released by
rupture of the body wall which afterwards repairs itself. As is the case in most protostomes
, development of the embryo is determinate, with each cell destined to become a specific
part of the animal's body.[6] At least one species of gastrotrich, Urodasys viviparus, is 
viviparous.[10]
 Many species of chaetotonid gastrotrichs reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis. In
these species, the male portions of the reproductive system are degenerate and
non-functional, or, in many cases, entirely absent. Though the eggs have a diameter
of less than 50 µm, they are still very large in comparison with the animals' size.
Some species are capable of laying eggs that remain dormant during times of 
desiccation or low temperatures; these species, however, are also able to produce
regular eggs, which hatch in one to four days, when environmental conditions are
more favourable. The eggs of all gastrotrichs undergo direct development and hatch
into miniature versions of the adult. The young typically reach sexual maturity in
about three days. In the laboratory, Lepidodermella squamatum has lived for up to
forty days, producing four or five eggs during the first ten days of life. [6]
 Gastrotrichs demonstrate eutely, each species having an invariant genetically fixed
number of cells as adults. Cell division ceases at the end of embryonic development
and further growth is solely due to cell enlargement