STRUCRTURES OF PLANT PARTS

 The meristem is a type of tissue found in plants. It consists of

undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) capable of cell division. Cells in
the meristem can develop into all the other tissues and organs that occur in
plants. These cells continue to divide until a time when they get
differentiated and then lose the ability to divide
Based on position of body
 Apical meristem:
 It is located at the apices of roots and at the apices of main and lateral
shoots. It is also located in trichomes, glands and in other structures that they
produce. Primordial meristem (= promeristem) composes the apical meristem
and consists of undifferentiated homogeneous cells.
 Promeristem exhibits zonations in the apical meristem. The zones can be
distinguished from each other by their relative thickness of cell wall, cell
size, nuclear size and relative frequency of mitoses.
 Intercalary meristem:
 It is located at the base of internode. Intercalary meristem is short lived and
divides frequently. It donates cells above and below. Vascular tissues are also
differentiated from this meristem. The derivative cells differentiate into
permanent tissues in basipetal succession; as a result stem elongates.
 Intercalary meristem is an isolated region in the internode and has permanent
tissues above and below it. It remains widely separated from apical meristem.
Ex. grasses and some plants belonging to the families chenopodiaceae,
caryophyllaceae and polygonaceae etc. In monocots elongation of shoot axis
occurs by random cell divisions and differentiation throughout the youngest
internodes.
 Lateral meristem:
 It is located parallel to the long axis of root and shoot. Examples of lateral
meristems include vascular cambium, cork cambium, primary thickening
meristem (PTM) and secondary thickening meristem (STM). Pericycle of root
also could be referred to as lateral meristem because adventitious root
originate from pericycle.
 In dicotyledonous stem vascular cambium consists of fascicular and
interfascicular cambium. The cambium divides tangentially and donates cells
on the peripheral and inner side. The derivative cells differentiate into
vascular tissues. Thus new cells are added to primary vascular, tissues. As a
result a stem increases in girth. Root also increases in diameter by the
activity of cambium.
Based on function
 1. Protoderm meristem:
   
 Location: It is located around the outside of the stem.

 It is a thin outermost layer of the meristem in embryos, which give rise to

the epidermal tissue system and develops
into epidermis, stomata and hairs. It helps to protect the plant
from mechanical injury.
  
 2. Procambium meristem:
   
 Location: The procambium is situated next to the protoderm.

It is composed of narrow, elongated, meristematic cells that give rise to
the vascular tissues like the primary xylem, primary phloem and vascular
cambium.
  
 3. Ground meristem:
  
 It is also known as a fundamental meristem. It is composed of large, thick-
walled cells which develop to form ground tissue system, e
g.,hypodermis, endodermis, pericycle, cortex, rays and pith. Parenchyma, col
lenchyma, and sclerenchyma form the ground tissue system in plants

Periclinal Division

Periclinal division is a type of cell division that occurs parallel to the surface of the plant.
This division occurs in the lateral meristem, which is responsible for the growth in width. In
periclinal division, the cells divide perpendicular to the axis of the stem or root. This
results in the formation of new cells in the outer layers of the plant. These new cells
differentiate into various types of tissues, such as epidermis, cortex, and vascular tissue.

Anticlinal Division

Anticlinal division is a type of cell division that occurs perpendicular to the surface of the
plant. This division also occurs in the lateral meristem. In anticlinal division, the cells
divide parallel to the axis of the stem or root. This results in the formation of new cells in
the inner layers of the plant. These new cells differentiate into various types of tissues,
such as xylem and phloem.
 Shoot apex is the apical part of the stem. It contains multipotent stem cells,
which produce leaf primordia and give rise to all the aerial parts of a plant
such as leaves, branches, flowers, etc. It possesses apical meristem and
continues to grow.
 The stem is the aerial part of a plant that bears leaves, branches, flowers and
fruits. The stem is made up of nodes, where leaves are borne and internodes,
which is the part between two nodes.
 Apical Cell Theory:
 Nageli in 1944 advocated this theory. According to this theory the apical
meristem consists of a single apical cell (also called apical initial) and this
cell is interpreted as the ‘structural and functional unit of apical meristem’.
The cell is very large and is shaped like an inverted pyramid.
 The apical cell is tetrahedral in shape and has three or four cutting faces
among which single face is directed upward and the rest points downward.
The side of apical cell that is directed upward is triangular or square in shape
and forms a part of the outer surface of the shoot apex 
 The cutting faces of apical cell divide in an orderly fashion that is in helical succession.
The cell divides by an asymmetric division; as a result a narrow and flat cell is formed.
The next division of the apical cell is also asymmetric. This type of asymmetric division is
repeated in the downwardly pointed faces of the apical cell.
 As a result all cutting faces have their daughter cells. The daughter cells also divide and
form large packet of cells. The packet of cells differentiates and forms different segments
of shoot. So the apical cell is regarded as ‘a reserve of one genetically sound cell’.
 A single apical cell composing an apical meristem is present in vascular cryptogams. After
the discovery of solitary apical cell in vascular cryptogams, it was supposed that such
apical meristem might exist in higher plants as well.
 Later extensive investigations refuted the universal occurrence of solitary apical cell in a
meristem. In higher plants the apical cell theory was replaced by the concept that the
different parts of a plant body have independent origin. So the apical cell theory was later
superseded by histogen theory.
Histogen Theory:
 Hanstein in 1868 put forward histogen theory (histogen means tissue builder).
 According to this theory the tissues of a plant body originate from a mass
of meristem where the following three (histogens) can be distinguished 
 Dermatogen:
 (In Greek meaning skin). It is the outermost layer of the meristem. It gives rise to
epidermises of root and stem.
 (b) Periblem:
 (In Greek meaning clothing). This region occurs internal to dermatogen but
peripheral to plerome. This histogen is destined to form cortex of root and shoot
and inner tissues of leaves. It surrounds plerome.
 (c) Plerome:
 (In Greek meaning that this fills). This region gives rise to vascular cylinder of
stem and root including pith. It is the central core of stem and root and the cells
composing this zone are very irregular. This region is enveloped by a variable
number of mantle-like layers which are represented by dermatogen and periblem.
 Tunica-Corpus Theory:
 Schmidt in 1924 postulated tunica- corpus theory on the basis of studies of
shoot apices of angiosperm. This theory is concerned with planes of cell
division in the apex. In contrast to apical cell theory and histogen theory
tunica-corpus theory is applicable only to shoot apex and not to root. Schmidt
distinguishes two tissue zones in the shoot apex and termed them as tunica
and corpus.
 Tunica is the peripheral tissue zone of shoot apex. It consists of one or more
peripheral layers of cells. Dicotyledons exhibit one to five layers of cells in
tunica; two layers of cells are represented by largest number of species.
Monocotyledons have one to four layers of cells in tunica; one and two
layered tunica predominates in it. One single layered tunica is termed as
monostratose. Many layered tunica is termed as multistratose. Xanthorrhoea
media shows eighteen layered tunica.
 Tunica is characterized in having anticlinal plane of cell division, i.e., the
division wall is laid down perpendicular to the surface. This division reflects
to the surface growth in apex.
corpous
 Corpus is the inner tissue zone of shoot apex. It consists of cells that are
several cell layers deep. Tunica overarches corpus. Meristematic tissues
composing this zone are larger than tunica. The initial cells of corpus occur
below the tunica. They are orderly arranged in contrast to haphazardly
arranged cells in the mass of corpus. So the initials of corpus are difficult to
differentiate from the initials of tunica.
 The initials arise independently and not related to tunica. The initial cells
divide periclinally and the derivatives divide to form the core of the shoot
apex. In the division of derivative cells there is no definite orientation of cell
wall formation, i.e. cells divide in all planes. As a result the shoot apex
increases in volume. Generally corpus is destined to give rise cortex and
vascular tissue.
 The corpus is composed of three zones:
 (a) Central mother cells —the uppermost zone of corpus.
 (b) Pith-rib meristem that occurs below the central mother cell zone.
 (c) Flank meristem (also called peripheral meristem) that surrounds both
central mother cell zone and pith-rib meristem. The peripheral zone is
shaped like a truncated hollow cone.
 The component cells of tunica and corpus differ in size, shape, plane of cell
division and topography. Ultrastructurally each zone is composed of cells that
have characteristic architectures as is revealed by quantitative techniques.
Types of gymnosperms on basis of shoot
apex
 Cycads /ˈsaɪkædz/ are seed plants that typically have a stout and woody (
ligneous) trunk with a crown of large, hard, stiff, evergreen and (usually) 
pinnate leaves. The species are dioecious, that is, individual plants of a
species are either male or female. Cycads vary in size from having trunks only
a few centimeters to several meters tall. They typically grow very slowly[3] and
live very long. Because of their superficial resemblance, they are sometimes
mistaken for palms or ferns, but they are not closely related to either group.
 Cycads are gymnosperms (naked-seeded), meaning their unfertilized seeds are
open to the air to be directly fertilized by pollination, as contrasted with 
angiosperms, which have enclosed seeds with more complex fertilization
arrangements. Cycads have very specialized pollinators, usually a specific
species of beetle. Both male and female cycads bear cones (strobili),
somewhat similar to conifer con
 Ginkgo is a genus of non-flowering seed plants. The scientific name is also
used as the English name. The order to which it belongs, Ginkgoales, first
appeared in the Permian,[3] 270 million years ago, and Ginkgo is now the only
living genus within the order. The rate of evolution within the genus has been
slow, and almost all its species had become extinct by the end of the 
Pliocene.
Leaf primordia

 Leaves originate on the flanks of the shoot apex. A local concentration of cell divisions marks the very beginning of
a leaf; these cells then enlarge so as to form a nipple-shaped structure called the leaf buttress. The cells of the
leaf buttress may be derived from the tunica alone or from both the tunica and the corpus.
 In the early growth of the leaf primordium, new cells are contributed mainly by meristematic activity at the pole
directed away from the stem, so that the buttress extends in length. The subsequent distribution of growth varies
among the different groups of vascular plants according to the shape of the mature leaf. In considering the
angiosperms, a broad-leaved dicotyledon (e.g., tobacco) and a narrow-leaved monocotyledon (e.g., maize [corn])
will serve as examples.
 Apical growth dominates in the tobacco-leaf primordium until a height of about 0.5 millimetre (0.02 inch) is
reached. Thereafter, the buttress becomes more and more flattened in the transverse plane by laterally oriented
cell divisions and further expansion growth on either side. The dividing zones are the marginal meristems, through
the activity of which the leaf gains its laminate form. In each meristem the outer file of cells, or marginal initials,
contributes the epidermal layers by continued division. The cells below, the submarginal initials, provide the tissue
of the inner part of the leaf. Usually a certain number of cell layers is defined in the mesophyll (the parenchyma
between the epidermal layers of a foliage leaf). Cell division is not limited to the region of the marginal meristems
but continues throughout the leaf in each of the layers, always in the same plane, until the final cell number is
approached. The rate then declines, ceasing in the different layers at different times. Divisions usually end first in
the epidermis, then in the lower mesophyll layers of a leaf such as that of tobacco, and last in the main
photosynthetic tissue, the palisade layer, just beneath the upper epidermis.
 The vascular pattern in a tobacco leaf is determined early in the development of
the vessel primordium. A procambial strand is formed by the elongation of narrow
axial cells, and this extends both toward the base and toward the apex, eventually
linking with the procambium of the stem. When the marginal meristems become
active, the lateral veins of the leaf are initiated first, followed by the third and
later order branchings that give the characteristic network of veins in the mature
leaf.
 Although the differentiation of the cells of the vascular system begins at the base,
the epidermal and mesophyll cells mature from the tip inward toward the stem.
The palisade cells elongate in a plane at right angles to the epidermis; those of the
lower mesophyll expand irregularly to give lobed forms. The cells of the epidermis,
shaped like irregular paving stones, continue to expand in the plane of the leaf
after growth ceases in the mesophyll, so that the cells of the internal tissues are
pulled apart to form the system of air spaces found in the mature leaf.
Origin of branches

 Apical branching (dichotomous branching)

 Apical branching is a type of branching in which the shoot apex divides,
usually bifurcating to produce two branches. In the simplest type of apical
branching, the apex divides to produce two equal branches. This type of
apical branching is often simply called dichotomous (Greek dicho- = in two),
but is sometimes called isotomous (Greek isos = equal). Dichotomous
branching was the earliest type of branching and is seen in some ancient
plant sporophytes, like the Silurian to Devonian plant Cooksonia (typically
considered an early vascular plant) and the Devonian plant Aglaophyton (a
protracheophyte, a branching plant lacking true vascular tissue, shown
below). Dichotomous branching is also seen in some modern plants like the
firmosses (Huperzia, an example is shown below) and whisk ferns (Psilotum).
 Sometimes, apical branching produces branches of unequal size. This type of
branching is known as anisotomous (Greek anisos = unequal). If apical branching is
extremely unequal, it may be called pseudomonopodial (Greek pseudēs =
fake/false). A plant with pseudomonopodial branching or pseudomonopodial
growth mimics the form of a plant with monopodial growth (discussed below). In
other words, pseudomonopodial branching results in a plant that looks like it has a
dominant ("main") stem and lateral (side) branches, even though branching is really
apical. Unequal apical branching occurs in lycophytes and some extinct groups, like
trimerophytes (the stem group to euphyllophytes, the group that includes ferns,
horsetails, and seed plants).
 Terminology note: "Dichotomous branching" is often used as a synonym for apical
branching, encompassing both isotomous (equal) and anisotomous (unequal) types.
In this case, a modifier (like "isotomous" or "equal") may be used to indicate the
relative size of the branches.
 Axillary branching
 In axillary branching, lateral branches grow from axillary buds, or buds the develop
in the leaf axils. An axil is the angle formed between the the upper (adaxial) side of
the leaf and the stem to which it is attached; the word axil comes from the Latin
word axilla, meaning "armpit" (just remember: the axil is the armpit of the leaf!).
Axillary buds—also called lateral buds—are just immature branches. An axillary bud
may elongate to form a vegetative (sterile) branch, but it may also develop to form a
fertile branch. A fertile branch is a reproductive structure like a cone or a flower.
Axillary branching is found in many seed plants, including ginkgoes (Ginkgo), conifers,
and angiosperms (flowering plants); axillary branching is absent in cycads.
 Terminology note: Often, the term "axillary bud" is used when leaves are present, as
"axillary" describes the position of the bud in the upper angle between leaf and stem.
The term "lateral" may be preferred when leaves are shed (lost), because the position
of the bud is no longer obviously axillary (without a leaf, there is no axil)
 Axillary bud primordia (bumps of tissue that will become buds) first appear
near the apical meristem, developing soon after their associated leaves.
Often, one axillary bud occurs per leaf axil. It should be noted, however, that
some leaves may lack an axillary bud. Furthermore, in some plants more than
one bud may occur in a single leaf axil; extra buds in addition to the typical
axillary bud are called accessory buds.
 Non-axillary lateral branching in pteridophytes
 While branching in seed plants is typically axillary, lateral branches can also
arise from non-axillary positions on a stem. In ferns, lateral branches can
arise from a variety of positions on the stem. In horsetails (Equisetum),
lateral branches originate from positions between the leaves. Because the
tiny leaves in horsetails are fused into a sheath around the stem, the
branches break through the leaf sheath during growth.
 Adventitious branching
 Adventitious branching is branching that does not occur via the normal process of branching
for a given plant. In general terms, adventitious structures are structures that develop in
unexpected places. Note that "unexpected" means unexpected from the perspective of the
organization of the plant embryo and standard plant body plan. Adventitious structures are
rather common in plants, and, in fact, can be an essential part of the development of some
types of plants. For example, adventitious roots (stem-borne roots) replace the primary
root (the root the develops from the embryonic root) in many pteridophytes and monocots as
the plants transition from embryo to mature forms.
 For an apically branching plant, adventitious branches are branches that do not develop by
division of the shoot apex, but arise elsewhere. For plants with axillary branching,
adventitious branches grow from buds that develop in a region away from the leaf axil (or
former leaf axil, if the leaf has been shed). Cycads, which typically branch apically, can
form adventitious lateral branches. In this case, suckers (also called bulbils, offsets, or pups)
may form on the sides of stems, from tissue in the leaf bases.
 The following points highlight the top three theories of root apical meristem in plants.
The theories are: 1. Apical Cell Theory 2. Histogen Theory 3. Korper-Kappe Theory.
 1. Apical Cell Theory:
 This theory was proposed by Nageli who drew the attention to the occurrence of a
single apical cell or apical initial that composes the root meristem. A single apical cell
is present only in vascular cryptogams, e.g. Equisetum, Adiantum and Polypodium etc.
The apical initial is tetrahedral in shape and generates root cap from one side.
 The other three sides donate cells to form epidermis, cortex and vascular cylinder. In
other words all tissues that compose a mature root including root cap are the
derivatives of a single apical cell. Apical cell theory is confined to vascular cryptogams
only as the root apical meristem of flowering plants does not have a single apical cell.
 2. Histogen Theory:
 Hanstein in 1868 advocated the theory. According to Hanstein root apical
meristem consists of three cell-initiating regions called histogens (Fig. 7.22).
The histogens are called dermatogen, periblem and plerome that respectfully
form epidermis, cortex and vascular cylinder that are present in a mature
root.
 The derivatives of dermatogen vary. In Zea mays (monocot) dermatogen
generates root cap only and this histogen is referred to as calyptrogen. In
Brassica (dicot) dermatogen generates both protoderm and root cap and this
histogen is referred to as dermatocalyptrogen.
 Histogen theory explains both root and shoot apical meristem. This theory
attributes specific destinies to the derivatives of the three histogens. Though
histogen theory is abandoned to explain shoot apex, Eames and MacDaniels
illustrated the root apical meristem on the basis of histogen concept.
 Korper-Kappe Theory:
 This theory of root meristem was proposed in 1917 by Schiiepp who regarded
the occurrence of two systems of cell seriation that characterize the root
apex with reference to planes of cell division in its parts.
 Korper-kappe concept is also referred to as body-cap concept (Korper = body
and kappe = cap) and the concept illustrates distinct type of cell wall pattern
formation during cell division. The body-cap concept is illustrated below on
analyzing the divisions in the derivatives of apical cell.
 The root meristem exhibits multicellular structure. It consists of conspicuous longitudinal
files of cells. During growth the root changes in diameter. This happens due to cell
divisions that occur in such a way that a single longitudinal file of cells becomes double
files. The initial cell divides transversely. The two cells thus formed one has the capability
of cell division. This cell divides longitudinally and both the daughter cells inherit the
property of cell division.
 The daughter cells are parallel in arrangement, share a common wall and divide by
transverse partition followed by longitudinal partition in one cell. The sequences of wall
formation when viewed together appear to form a configuration resembling the letter ‘T’
or ‘Y’. Such divisions are described as T-divisions. Continuous T-divisions result in the
formation of double-rowed region over a single rowed region.
 It is the T-division that characterizes korper and kappe. In the kappe the initial cell first
divides transversely and forms two cells. The daughter cell that faces the root apex
inherits the initial function. It divides longitudinally. The two cells thus formed have the
capability of cell division.
 Korper and kappe-these two zones of root are delimited by planes of cell
division. The zones exhibit clear boundary when they originate from separate
initials, e.g. root with calyptrogen. The zones do not exhibit sharp demarcation
line when they are the derivatives of same apical cell. In root with
dermatocalyptrogen the cap extends into protoderm.
 The central part of root cap is the columella where the cells are arranged in
longitudinal files. These cells seldom divide. When division occurs the partition
walls form the configuration of an inverted ‘T’ that is observed in the korper.
The ‘T’ has normal configuration in the peripheral region of root cap.
 The korper-kappe theory of root apex is comparable with tunica-corpus theory
of shoot apex. The body-cap concept and tunica-corpus concept both are based
solely on the planes of cell division. Anticlinal division is the characteristic of
tunica whereas corpus exhibits both anticlinal and periclinal division.
Structure of root

 Root systems are mainly of two types (Figure 23.15). Dicots have a tap root
system, while monocots have a fibrous root system. A tap root system has a
main root that grows down vertically, and from which many smaller lateral
roots arise. Dandelions are a good example; their tap roots usually break off
when trying to pull these weeds, and they can regrow another shoot from the
remaining root). A tap root system penetrates deep into the soil. In contrast,
a fibrous root system is located closer to the soil surface, and forms a dense
network of roots that also helps prevent soil erosion (lawn grasses are a good
example, as are wheat, rice, and corn). Some plants have a combination of
tap roots and fibrous roots. Plants that grow in dry areas often have deep root
systems, whereas plants growing in areas with abundant water are likely to
have shallower root systems.
 Root Growth and Anatomy
 Root growth begins with seed germination. When the plant embryo emerges
from the seed, the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. The tip of the
root is protected by the root cap, a structure exclusive to roots and unlike any
other plant structure. The root cap is continuously replaced because it gets
damaged easily as the root pushes through soil. The root tip can be divided
into three zones: a zone of cell division, a zone of elongation, and a zone of
maturation and differentiation (Figure 23.16). The zone of cell division is
closest to the root tip; it is made up of the actively dividing cells of the root
meristem. The zone of elongation is where the newly formed cells increase in
length, thereby lengthening the root. Beginning at the first root hair is the
zone of cell maturation where the root cells begin to differentiate into special
cell types. All three zones are in the first centimeter or so of the root tip
 The root has an outer layer of cells called the epidermis, which surrounds
areas of ground tissue and vascular tissue. The epidermis provides protection
and helps in absorption. Root hairs, which are extensions of root epidermal
cells, increase the surface area of the root, greatly contributing to the
absorption of water and minerals.
 Inside the root, the ground tissue forms two regions: the cortex and the pith
(Figure 23.17). Compared to stems, roots have lots of cortex and little pith.
Both regions include cells that store photosynthetic products. The cortex is
between the epidermis and the vascular tissue, whereas the pith lies between
the vascular tissue and the center of the root.
 The vascular tissue in the root is arranged in the inner portion of the root,
which is called the stele (Figure 23.18). A layer of cells known as
the endodermis separates the stele from the ground tissue in the outer portion
of the root. The endodermis is exclusive to roots, and serves as a checkpoint
for materials entering the root’s vascular system. A waxy substance called
suberin is present on the walls of the endodermal cells. This waxy region,
known as the Casparian strip, forces water and solutes to cross the plasma
membranes of endodermal cells instead of slipping between the cells. This
ensures that only materials required by the root pass through the endodermis,
while toxic substances and pathogens are generally excluded. The outermost
cell layer of the root’s vascular tissue is the pericycle, an area that can give
rise to lateral roots. In dicot roots, the xylem and phloem of the stele are
arranged alternately in an X shape, whereas in monocot roots, the vascular
tissue is arranged in a ring around the pith.
 Root Modifications
 Root structures may be modified for specific purposes. For example, some roots are
bulbous and store starch. Aerial roots and prop roots are two forms of aboveground
roots that provide additional support to anchor the plant. Tap roots, such as carrots,
turnips, and beets, are examples of roots that are modified for food storage 

 Epiphytic roots enable a plant to grow on another plant. For example, the epiphytic
roots of orchids develop a spongy tissue to absorb moisture. The banyan tree
(Ficus sp.) begins as an epiphyte, germinating in the branches of a host tree; aerial
roots develop from the branches and eventually reach the ground, providing
additional support (Figure 23.20). In screwpine (Pandanus sp.), a palm-like tree that
grows in sandy tropical soils, aboveground prop roots develop from the nodes to
provide additional support.
 Secondary growth leads to thicker roots and causes primary tissues like
epidermis, hypodermis, cortex, and endodermis to be lost. Secondary roots
develop a suberized cortical layer that prevents the entry of water, although
it can enter through lenticels when they are present.
 Only the largest main and lateral roots of dicot plants and gymnosperm show
a typical secondary growth. Secondary growth begins when the procambium
meristem, between the xylem and phloem, becomes the vascular
cambium meristem. Depending on the number of phloem bundles, there is
initially formed a variable number of segments of vascular cambium (Figure
1).
 At the same time, the portions of the pericycle close to the xylem spoke poles
divide periclinaly and the cells that locate inner become vascular cambium
meristem too. Later, the vascular cambium originated between xylem and
phloem and that originated from the pericycle are connected to form a
continuous structure: the root vascular cambium, which is
a cylinder extending along the mayor axis of the root. Short after the
continuous vascular cambium is formed, it produces secondary phloem toward
the outer part and secondary xylem toward the inner part. The new layers of
secondary xylem push the vascular cambium toward the surface of the root.
In this way the perimeter of vascular cambium increases in length and xylem
progressively accumulates so that the root increases in thickness.
 In this way, the secondary root gets organized similarly to the secondary
stem. Indeed, there is a continuity of the vascular bundles, as well as the
vascular cambium, between the root and the stem. Unlike the primary
growth, there is no transition zone between secondary stem and secondary
root. The higher proportion of xylem and less delimited growth rings in the
roots make possible to distinguish the root from the stem. In both, root and
stem, the vascular cambium is composed of two types of cells: fusiform initial
cells and radial initial cells. Fusiform initial cells differentiate in axially
(vertical) oriented cells, whereas the radial initial cells give horizontally
oriented cells.
 The periderm is the outer structure of the secondary root. Periderm is
derived from the phellogen meristem (cork cambium), after the formation of
the secondary vascular tissue has begun.
 From the surface to the inner part, the following structures can be
distinguished in a secondary root:
 Epidermis/cortex/periderm. The secondary growth of the root may be more
or less advanced. At the beginning of the secondary growth, roots show
epidermis and cortex with parenchyma cells (cortical parenchyma). In more
advanced secondary growth, the epidermis and cortex is replaced by the
periderm, which is a protective layer derived from the cock cambium
(phellogen), a lateral meristem differentiated from the pericycle.
 Secondary phloem. It is differentiated from the vascular cambium meristem,
and it is laid toward the outer part. The formation of the secondary phloem lets
to the separation between the primary phloem and the vascular cambium.
 Vascular cambium. It is a lateral meristem responsible for the growing in
thickness of the root. It produces secondary phloem toward the outer part and
secondary xylem toward the inner part. As the root is getting thicker, the
vascular cambium is increasing in size and moves away from the center of the
root.
 Secondary xylem. It is produced by the vascular cambium. It forms the wood of
the root, and it is dead tissue in the thicker roots . The most recent xylem is the
most superficial.
 Primary xylem. It is generated during the primary growth and is found in the
inner part of the root. It is death tissue in secondary roots.
 Monocot Root
 These plant roots have a comparatively wider, and fibrous root-like structure.
 Dicot Root
 These plant roots have a comparatively narrow, and tap root-like structure.
 Normally, dicots and monocots differ in four aspects which include stems,
flowers, leaves, and roots. Here let us know more about the differences
between a monocot and dicot roots of a plant.
 The Dicot and Monocot Roots are distinguished mainly based on the structure
of the root. The important difference between Dicot and Monocot roots have
been discussed below:
 Dicot Root Monocot Root
Pericycle
Gives rise to cork cambium, parts of the vascular Gives rise to lateral roots only
cambium, and lateral roots

Vascular Tissues
Has a limited number of Xylem and Phloem Has a higher number of Xylem and Phloem

Shape of Xylem
Angular or Polygonal Round or Oval
Number of Xylem and Phloem
2 to 8 8 to many
Pith
Absent or very small and undeveloped Larger and well developed

Conjunctive tissue
Parenchymatous Sclerenchymatous
Secondary growth
Secondary growth occurs Secondary growth does not occur

Cambium
Present and formed by the  Conjunctive parenchyma Absent

Xylem
Usually tetrarch Polyarch
Cortex
Comparatively Narrow Very wide
Covering
Older roots are covered by a Cork Older roots are covered by an Exodermis

Examples
Pea, beans, peanuts, etc. Maize, banana, palm, etc.
structure of stem
 The main functions of stems are to support and elevation of leaves, fruits,
and flowers. Stem arranges leaves in a way that it gets direct sunlight to
perform photosynthesis. Xylem and Phloem conduct water across the plant.
Stems stores food, water, and nutrients. Cells of a stem, meristems, produce
new living tissues. Underground stem, Aerial stem, and subaerial stem are
three different types of Stem. A stem has many important functions it
performs other than letting you climb a tree. Let us take an in-depth look at
the stem of plThe main functions of stems are to support and elevation of
leaves, fruits, and flowers.
 Stem arranges leaves in a way that it gets direct sunlight to perform 

photosynthesis.

 Xylem and Phloem conduct water across the plant. Stems stores food, water,

and nutrients.

 Cells of a stem, meristems, produce new living tissues. Underground stem,

Aerial stem, and subaerial stem are three different types of Stem.

 A stem has many important functions it performs other than letting you climb

a tree. Let us take an in-depth look at the stem of plants.

 The stem divides into nodes and internodes. The nodes give rise to the leaves
and hold the buds which grow into branches. The internodes separate two
nodes.
 Internally, it contains three basic types of tissues: Dermal tissue, Ground
tissue, and Vascular tissue all of which are made of simple cells.
 Epidermis: The epidermis is a single layer of cells that make up the external
tissue of the stem called dermal tissue. This tissue covers the stem and
protects the underlying tissue. Woody plants have an extra layer of protection
on top of the epidermis known as bark. In some cases, the bears’ multi-
cellular hairs and a few stomata.
 Ground tissue divides into two- the central portion is known as the pith and
the cortex which lies between the vascular tissue and the epidermis.
 The cortex can be further divided into three layers:
 Hypodermis: It is the outermost layer of the cortex. It is formed of 4 to 5 cell thick layer of
collenchymatous cells. These cells are living and contain chloroplasts.
 General cortex: Lies below the hypodermis. It consists of thin-walled parenchymatous cells
with intercellular spaces. Some of the cells have chloroplasts and are known as chlorenchyma.
 Endodermis: The innermost layer of the cortex. It is made up of a single row of compact
barrel-shaped cells without intercellular spaces. The cells of endodermis store starch grains
and so they are known as the starch sheath. Casparian strips are distinctly visible in
endodermal cells.
 The vascular tissue of the stem consists of the complex tissues xylem and phloem which carry
water and nutrients up and down the length of the stem and are arranged in distinct strands
called vascular bundles. Cambium is a strip of thin-walled cells that lie between the xylem and
phloem in dicot plants. Cambium is made up of merismatic cells and is responsible for 
secondary growth. It is absent in monocots.
 Growth in a Stem
 Growth in stems occurs in two ways:
 Primary growth occurs at the apical tips of the stem by virtue of the rapidly
dividing merismatic tissue in these regions of the stem.
 Secondary growth is actually the increase in the thickness of the stem by
virtue of the lateral meristems. These are absent in the herbaceous plants as
they lack cambium which is responsible for this type of growth.
 Types of Stems
 Based on their location with respect to the ground, there are three types of
stems:
 Underground stem
 Aerial stem
 Subaerial stem.
 Understand Tissue System
 Underground stems
 These stems remain at the ground level and produce aerial shoots that rise
above the soil. Their roots are superficially present. These stems are meant
for storage of food and perennation. These stems are also capable of
vegetative propagation.
 They are of different types as follows:
 Rhizome- is a thickened underground stem that has distinct nodes and
internodes and scaly leaves at the nodes. Example: Ginger.
 Tuber- is a horizontal underground stem that becomes enlarged at its growing
tips due to the accumulation of stored food, commonly starch. E.g. Potato.
 Bulb- It is a short underground stem with a fleshy base with leafy scales. The
stem is actually reduced to form a disc-like structure. The nodes bear fleshy
scales. On the upper side, the disc bears a terminal bud surrounded by a
number of leaves. E .g. Onion.
 Corm- is a short, vertical, swollen underground stem of a plant that serves as a
food storage organ to enable the plant to survive adverse conditions. E.g
Colocasia
 Subaerial Stems
 These stems run parallel to the ground and give off roots at certain intervals or nodes.
 They are further divided into the following types:
 Runner- It grows parallel to the ground and has a creeping stem with long internodes. On
the lower surface, the nodes give out adventitious roots at regular intervals. A runner
develops from the axils of lower leaves of the aerial stem
 Offset- These are shorter and thicker than the runner and are often seen in aquatic plants
 Stolon- It is similar to a runner but arises from the lower part of the main axis.
 Sucker-  These stems are similar to the stolon but it grows obliquely upwards and gives
rise to a new plant
 Aerial Stems
 These stems are found above the ground and perform varied functions.
 They are of the following types:
 Thorns- These stem modifications appear as hard, woody and sharp outgrowths that
protect the plant. example: roses
 Tendril – These types of stems are slender, twining strands that enable a plant to seek
support while climbing on other surfaces.
 Phylloclade- This type of stem is a green, flattened or cylindrical one that resembles a
leaf. A phylloclade is capable of performing photosynthesis and we can find them in
xerophytes or in other plants that have little or no leaves.
 Cladode- This is a modification of the phylloclade where it contains one or more
internodes.
 Bulbil- These stems are actually modified axillary buds which become fleshy and
rounded due to the storage of food. They become detached from the plant, fall o the
ground and develop into a new plant, thus help in vegetative propagation.
 Functions of Stem
 It supports and holds leaves, flowers, and fruits.
 The stem allows the leaves to arrange in a way that they are able to receive direct sunlight
in order to efficiently perform photosynthesis. The arrangement and position of leaves also
allow for gas exchange.
 The xylem and phloem present in the vascular bundles of stems conduct water and minerals
across the plant.
 Stems bear flowers and fruits in a position that facilitates the processes of pollination,
fertilization, and dispersion of seeds.
 Some stems undergo modification to store food and water. Example: succulents.
 Few green stems contain chloroplasts and are capable of carrying out photosynthesis as well.
 Some stems are modified to carry out vegetative propagation which is a form of asexual
reproduction seen in plants.
Monocot stem maize

 The Monocot Stem has Vascular Bundles near the outside edge of Stem. Vascular Bundles are scattered in
Parenchymatous ground Tissue. There is no pith region in Monocots. Dicot Stems have bundles in a ring
surrounding Parenchyma cells in a pith region. 

1.  Epidermis
It is the outermost layer made up of single layer of tightly packed parenchymatous cells with thick
cuticle. 
 There are no epidermal outgrowths.

 2.   Hypodermis
A few layer of sclerenchymatous cells lying below the epidermis constitute the hypodermis, gives
mechanical strength to the plant.
 3.  Ground tissue It is not differentiated into cortex, endodermis, pericycle and pith. 
 The ground tissue is represented by several layers of loosely arranged parenchyma cells enclosing
prominent intercellular spaces.
  The ground tissue is meant for storage of food. 
 4.  Vascular bundles
Vascular bundles are scattered in the parenchymatous ground tissue.
 Vascular bundles are numerous, small and closely arranged in the peripheral portion.
 Towards the centre, the bundles are comparatively large in size and loosely arranged. 
 Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of sclerenchymatous fibres called bundle sheath.
 The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.  
 Phloem: 
The phloem in the monocot stem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. 
 Phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres are absent.
 Xylem :
The two metaxylem vessels are located at the upper two arms and one or two protoxylem vessels at the
base. (Y shaped)

  In a mature bundle, the lowest protoxylem disintegrates and forms a cavity known as protoxylem lacuna.
 The internal structure of monocot maize:
 The internal structure of monocot maize has the following internal parts when a thin
transverse section is taken under consideration:
 Epiblema:
 An epiblema is also known as rhizodermis which is the outermost layer of the maize
root. It is a single-celled wall that comprises parenchymatous cells. It lacks the
presence of stomata and cuticles. The hairy roots help absorb water and various
minerals and nutrients from the depth of the soil. This layer of epiblema also protects
the inner tissues of the monocot roots of maize.
 Cortex:
 The cortex is a multilayered zone that is sufficiently large, comprising parenchymatous
cells and intercellular spaces. The cortex helps store water and food materials.
 Endodermis:  
 The endodermis is the innermost layer of the cortex and contains Casparian strips and cell
passage. The Casparian strips are thickened band-like structures made of suberin.
 Stele:
 The tissues that lie in the innermost part of the endodermis form the stele region of the
monocot roots. This innermost region includes the pericycle, the vascular tissues and the pith.
   Pericycle: It comprises a single layer of thin-walled cells. The origination of the lateral roots
takes place from this layer of pericycle.
 Vascular tissues: They consist of many patches of xylem and phloem arranged radially. The
xylem is also known as exarch and polyarchy, and the sclerenchyma forms the conjunctive
tissue.
  Pith: The pith region is present at the centre of the internal structure of the monocot maize.
This entire region comprises parenchymatous cells along with intercellular spaces. It helps in
storing food for the plant and contains a huge amount of starch grains
Sunflower
 Epidermis

 It is protective in function and forms the outermost layer of the stem. It is a

single layer of parenchymatous rectangular cells. The cells are compactly
arranged without intercellular spaces. The outer walls of epidermal cells have
a layer called cuticle. The cuticle checks the transpiration. The cuticle is
made up of waxy substance known as cutin. Stomata may be present here and
there. Epidermal cells are living. Chloroplasts are usually absent. A large
number of multicellular hairs occur on the epidermis.
 Cortex lies below the epidermis. The cortex is differentiated into three zones. Below the
epidermis, there are few layers of collenchyma cells. This zone is called hypodermis. It
gives mechanical strength of the Stem. These cells are living and thickened at the corners.

 Inner to the hypodermis, a few layers of collenchyma cells are present. This zone is called
hypodermis. It gives mechanical strength to the stem. These cells are living and thickened
at the corners. Inner to the hypodermis, a few layers of chlorenchyma cells are present
with conspicuous intercellular spaces. This region performs photosynthesis. Some resin
ducts also occur here. The third zone is made up of parenchyma cells. These cells store
food materials. The innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis. The cells of this
layer are barrel shaped and arrange compactly without intercellular spaces. Since starch
grains are abundant in these cells, this layer is also known a starch sheath. This layer is
morphologically homologous to the endodermis found in the root. In most of the dicot
stems, endodermis with casparian strips is not developed.
stele

 The central part of the stem inner to the endodermis is known as stele. It
consists of pericyle, vascular bundles and pith. In dicot stem, vascular
bundles are arranged in a ring around the pith. This type of stele is
called eustele.
pericycle

 Pericycle is the layers of cells that occur between the endodermis and
vascular bundles. In the stem of sunflower (Helianthus),a few layers of
sclerenchyma cell occur in patches outside the phloem in each vascular
bundle. This patch of sclerenchyma cell is called Bundle cap or Hardbast.
The bundle caps and the parenchyma cells between them constitute the
pericycle in the stem of sunflower.
Vascular bundle and phloem
 The vascular bundles consist of xylem, phloem and cambium. Xylem and
phloem in the stem occur together and form the vascular bundles. These
vascular bundles are Wedge shaped. They are arranged in the form of a ring.
Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.

 phloem
 Primary phloem lies towards the periphery. It consists of protophloem and
metaphloem. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma. Phloem fibres are absent in the primary phloem. Phloem
conducts organic food materials from the leaves to other parts of the plant
body.
 cambium
 Cambium consists of brick shaped and thin walled meristematic cells. It is one to
four layers in thickness. These cells are capable of forming new cells
during secondary growth.

Xylem consists of xylem fibres, xylem parrenchyma vessels and tracheids. Vessels are
thick walled and arranged in a few rows.
Xylem conducts water and minerals from the root to the other parts of the plant body.
pith

 The large central portion of the stem is called pith. It is composed of

parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces. The pith is also known
as medulla. The pith extends between the vascular bundles. These extensions
of the pith between the vascular bundles are called primary pith rays or
primary medullary rays. Function of the pith is storage of food
Structure of leaf
 The most numerous parts on most plants are their leaves. Leaves are
considered to be a plant organ. An organ is a group of tissues that performs a
specialized task. Leaves take energy from the sun and use it to make food-the
process of photosynthesis. 2 Plant leaves come in all sizes and shapes. Cedar
trees, for example, have needle-shaped leaves. Yellow skunk cabbage has
oval leaves that can be more than one yard wide. No matter what their size
or shape, leaves all perform the same function in a plant. 3 If you were to cut
through a leaf and look at the edge under a microscope, you would see
different structures.
 Leaves have three main parts. They are the epidermis, the mesophyll, and
the vascular tissue. 4 The epidermis is the outer layers of cells covering the
leaf. People also have an epidermis: their skin. The epidermis is transparent
(not green). There is a waxy, waterproof coating covering the surface of the
epidermis. This covering is called the cuticle. The cuticle is usually thicker on
the upper surface of the leaf than on the underside. Cuticles on leaves are
usually thicker in dry or windy climates than in wet or calm environments. For
example, plants that grow near the ocean often have thicker cuticles to keep
the ocean breezes from drying the plant out. 5 The epidermis has small
openings or pores called stomata (singular stoma). The stomata have guard
cells that control their opening and closing.
 The stomata open and close to control when gases enter and leave the leaf.
When the stomata are open, carbon dioxide enters the leaf, and oxygen and
water vapor go out. There are usually more stomata on the underside of a
leaf than on the upper surface. 6 The mesophyll is the middle part of the
leaf. In fact, that's what the word "mesophyll" means in Greek: "middle leaf."
There are several layers of upper leaf cells. These are called palisade cells.
They are tightly packed with many chloroplasts that trap the energy in
sunlight for photosynthesis. 7 Lower leaf cells are called the spongy layer
because they have many spaces between them. The leaf can temporarily
store carbon dioxide and oxygen in these spaces. These connect to the
stomata on the underside of the leaf where the gases can enter and exit the
leaf.
 Xylem tissue carries water absorbed by the plant's roots up into the leaf.
Phloem tissue carries the food made during photosynthesis throughout the
plant. 9 The structure of a leaf is ideal for carrying out the process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Here's
how it happens. The cells that contain the most chloroplasts are located near
the leaf's upper surface where they are exposed to the sun. Leaves are
typically flat and thin to have more surface area for the chloroplasts and to
allow sunlight to reach all the cells. 10 Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through
open stomata. Water, which is absorbed by the plant's roots, travels up the
stem to the leaf through the xylem.
 During photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen are produced from the carbon dioxide and water.
Oxygen passes out of the leaf through the open stomata. The sugar enters the phloem and
then travels throughout the plant. 11 Because such a large area of a leaf is exposed to the
air, water can quickly evaporate from a leaf into the air. The process by which water
evaporates from a plant's leaves is called transpiration. Transpiration is the plant's way of
making the water absorbed by its roots move through the plant. It's a little like drinking
liquid through a straw. When the straw is full, no more liquid can come in until some of the
liquid leaves the straw, going into your mouth. A plant loses water through its leaves,
creating a need for water in the roots to move upward through the plant. 12 A plant can lose
a lot of water through transpiration. One corn plant can lose almost a gallon of water on a
hot summer day. Without a way to slow down the process of transpiration, a plant would
shrivel up and die. One way plants slow down transpiration is by closing the stomata. The
stomata often close when the temperature is very hot. Desert plants have adapted by only
opening their stomata at night. 13 Even though leaves may look very different, they have the
same function and the same types of tissues. These different types of tissues work together
in the leaf to make food for the plant.