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V1-Ophthalmic division
V2-maxillary division
V3-mandibular division
Functions-
• The trigeminal nerve is the great sensory
nerve of the face. Its territory is delimited by
the coronal line passing through the vertex,
the tragus and the inferior border of the
mandible.
Sensory function
• The supra-ocular area is innervated by the
ophthalmic nerve.
• The inter-oculo-buccal area is innervated by
the maxillary nerve.
• The infrabuccal area is innervated by the
mandibular nerve.
Ophthalmic nerve
Origin -arises from the anteromedial part of the trigeminal ganglion
(of Gasser).
Pathway - travels forward obliquely and supero medially towards the
superior orbital fissure of the sphenoid
Useful relationships- The ophthalmic nerve runs below the trochlear
nerve. It is joined by filaments of the carotid plexus and
communicates with the oculomotor nerve.
Anastomoses- The ophthalmic nerve exchanges nerve fibers with the
three motor nerves of the eye: • the trochlear nerve (IV) • the
oculomotor nerve (III) • the abducent nerve (VI)
Collateral branches- sends an important sensory branch to the
tentorium cerebelli and to the posterior part of the falx. This is known
as the recurrent meningeal nerve of Arnold.
The terminal branches- of the ophthalmic nerve are the nasociliary,
frontal and lacrimal nerves
Lacrimal nerve
• Smallest of the main branches of the ophthalmic nerve.
• Enters the orbit through the narrowest part of the superior
orbital fissure, to reach the lacrimal gland.
Anastomoses- The lacrimal nerve anastomoses with the
trochlear nerve and the orbital branch of the maxillary
nerve.
Some of these terminal branches enter the lacrimal gland;
others extend to the lateral aspect of the superior eyelid.
The lacrimal nerve can be reached at the lacrimal gland and
more easily at the level of the eyelid.
Frontal nerve
• Enters the orbit through the superomedial aspect of the
superior orbital fissure, without passing through the
common tendinous ring.
• Terminal branches-
• The supratrochlear nerve (internal frontal) runs towards
the inner corner of the eye. It gives off filaments supplying
the frontal periosteum, the skin of the lower part of the
forehead, and the upper eyelid and its conjunctiva.
• The supra-orbital nerve (external frontal) passes through
the supra-orbital foramen. It innervates the upper eyelid, the
conjunctiva and the skin of the forehead. Small branches
perforate the occipitofrontalis muscle to supply the
lambdoid suture, the diploë of the frontal bone and the
mucosa of the frontal sinus
Nasociliary nerve-
The nasociliary nerve passes through the superomedial aspect of the
sphenoid fissure, within the common tendinous ring (annulus of
Zinn). It runs towards the medial part of the orbital cavity to end at
the medial anterior orbital foramen.
3. Observe the skin over the area of temporalis and masseter first to identify
if any atrophy or hypertrophy is obvious.
3) Palpate the masseter and temporalis muscles while you
instruct the patient to bite down hard.
*Katyal V (2010) The efficacy and safety of articaine versus lignocaine in dental treatments: a meta-analysis. J
Dent 38:307–317
Viral etiology
*Meyer et al, Nerve Injuries from Mandibular Third Molar Removal Atlas Oral Maxillofacial Surg Clin N
Am 19 (2011) 63–78
Risk factors-
Inferior alveolar nerve Lingual nerve
• Older age •Lingual surgical approach
• Dilacerated root tips in close proximity •Superiorly positioned lingual nerve
to the inferior alveolar canal (IAC) •Perforation of the lingual plate during
• Apical root thirds extending into the surgical third molar removal
IAC •Lingual positioning of third molar
• Dense bone •Root apices extending into the lingual
• Poor surgical access plate
Dental implant-related injuries
of the trigeminal nerve-
• Etiology:
• Preoperative errors in evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment
planning
• Local anesthetic injection
• Excessive implant osteotomy preparation (drilling) or
overheating due to drilling
• Impingement of the implant on the inferior alveolar canal
and neurovascular bundle
• Inadvertent transection of the mental, lingual, or long
buccal nerve during incision and/or soft tissue flap
retraction. (with age the alveolar ridge resorbs and postion
of mental foramen changes)
Less common causes of nerve injury are related to placement of bone grafts (autologous, allogenic, xenogenic)
Mandibular Osteotomies :
• Vertical ramus osteotomy
• Bilateral Sagittal split ramus osteotmy(BSSO)
• Genioplasty
Maxillary Osteotomies:
• Lefort I osteotomy
Clearly, the BSSO, which splits the mandible along 2–3 cm of the mandibular body and ramus,
must be considered as a high-risk procedure for the IAN coursing in the same bony structure, at
least much more than the VRO and genioplasty,
Points to be considered-
• The vertical osteotomy should be made in the first
or second molar region to avoid the most lateral
position of the IAN in the third molar region.
• Also, the depth of the osteotomy should be limited
to 2–3 mm in the first molar region to avoid the
IAN
• The horizontal osteotomy should be made at a
reasonable distance above the mandibular
foramen on the medial aspect of the ramus to
avoid the IAN as it enters the mandible
• Use of a spreading instrument (e.g., Smith
spreader) instead of sharp chisel to complete the
BSSO.
• Those sides where the nerves were embedded in
the distal fragments (dentate segment) do better
than those with nerves embedded in the proximal
segments.
• Recently a study by Doucet et al. indicated that if impacted third molars were removed during
BSSO, rather than before, the incidence of nerve damage was reduced*.
2000
• Low-level laser (LLL) treatment perioperatively at the mandibular foramen, mental foramen, and
lower lip and chin region using a gallium aluminum-arsenide (Ga-Al-Ar) laser at 820 nm have
shown promising results in IAN injury after BSSO**.
Trigeminal Neuralgia-
According to the International Classification of Headache
Disorders –
TN is characterized by recurrent unilateral brief electric
shock-like pains, abrupt in onset and termination, limited to
the distribution of one or more divisions of the trigeminal
nerve and triggered by innocuous stimuli. It may develop
without apparent cause or be a result of another diagnosed
disorder.
# The criteria were incorporated, largely unchanged, into the official research diagnostic framework criteria
published by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) and the International Headache Society
(IHS).
Diagnostic criteria-
The diagnostic criteria for classic and symptomatic trigeminal neuralgia is as follows-
Imaging-
• Because a significant percentage of patients have symptomatic trigeminal
neuralgia resulting from another disease process, diagnostic brain
imaging studies should be part of the initial evaluation of any patient with
trigeminal neuralgia symptoms.
• Although a routine brain CT scan is usually adequate to screen for a
cerebellopontine tumor, an MRI scan often better demonstrates multiple
sclerosis plaques and the anatomic relationships of the trigeminal root.
• Magnetic Resonance Tomographic Angiography (MRTA)- indicate
neurovascular compression.
• Other diagnostic studies, such as blood studies, lumbar puncture, and
evoked potentials, are generally not necessary
Management
#In general, when surgical options are considered, techniques directed at the Gasserian ganglion have
largely replaced peripheral techniques.
Peripheral Techniques-
• Peripheral nerve ablation is a procedure that
locally blocks the division of the trigeminal
nerve involved with pain.
• The means of ablation typically include local
(peripheral) blocks with local anesthetics,
neurectomy of the involved trigeminal branch
under local anesthesia, cryotherapy or
neurolytic blocks with alcohol or phenol
Orbital nerve block-
• The ophthalmic nerve per se is not blocked in the treatment of
trigeminal neuralgia because it leads to keratitis.
• The supraorbital and supratrochlear branches can be individually
blocked.
• The supratrochlear nerve can be injected at the superior medial
corner of the orbital ridge with 1 mL of local anesthetic with or
without corticosteroid.
• The supra orbital nerve can be injected at a distance of 1 cm
from the superior medial corner of the orbital ridge with 1 mL of
local anesthetic with or without corticosteroid
• The inferior orbital nerve can be injected at the inferior orbital
foramen which is 1 cm below the orbit and is usually located
with a needle inserted about 2 cm lateral to the nasal and
directed superiorly, posteriorly, and slightly laterally .
Maxillary nerve block-
• With the patient’s mouth opened, a 3.5-inch, 25-
gauge needle can be inserted between the zygomatic
arch and the notch of the mandible.
• At about 3 to 4 cm in depth, contact will be made
with the lateral pterygoid plate.
• Withdraw the needle 1 cm and angle it superiorly and
anteriorly to pass into the pterygopalatine fossa.
• Local anesthetic (4 to 6 mL) can then be instilled here
after negative aspiration.
• This technique anesthetizes the maxillary nerve and
the sphenopalatine ganglion.
• There is a risk of hemorrhage when blocking the
maxillary nerve with this technique
Mandibular nerve block-
• The mouth is slightly opened and a 25-gauge, 3.5-inch needle is
advanced between the zygomatic arch and the mandibular notch.
• After contact with the lateral pterygoid plate, withdraw the needle
one centimeter and angle superior and posterior toward the ear.
• About 4 to 6 mL of local anesthetic is then instilled at this location
after negative aspiration. The facial nerve may at times be
unintentionally blocked with this technique.
• The lingual and inferior mandibular nerves can be injected with the
mouth opened and by palpating the coronoid notch.
• The needle is introduced medial to the notch but lateral to the
pterygomandibular fold and advanced posteriorly about 2 cm along
the medial aspect of the mandibular ramus where 2 to 3 mL of local
anesthetic, when instilled, will block both nerves.
• The inferior alveolar nerve is blocked as it emerges from the mental
foramen at mid-mandible 2 mL of local anesthetic is instilled when
paresthesias are elicited or the needle enters the foramen.
Peripheral Neurectomy-
• Peripheral neurectomy is a simple, low-risk
procedure that can be done on all terminal
branches of the 3 divisions of trigeminal nerve.
Peripheral neurectomies were first tried in 1830
• This procedure can be done in outpatient setting
without general anesthesia. It is a post-ganglionic
surgical operation, which involves an avulsion of
the nerve after its exit from the cranium.
• It is an effective and safe treatment in rural areas,
which lack the facilities for neurosurgical
procedures, in elderly patients and in patients
who are reluctant for major surgeries.
Infra orbital neurectomy-
• Infraorbital neurectomy is performed
through vestibular incision,
dissection is carried out to expose the
nerve. An infraorbital nerve is
clamped and avulsed.
• The orifice of the infraorbital
foramen is then sealed by using a
stainless steel screw
Inferior alveolar nerve neurectomy--
• Inferior alveolar neurectomy: (Through
Ginwala's incision)
• An inverted Y-shaped incision is made
along the anterior border of ascending
ramus, which is then deepened on its medial
aspect by means of a blunt and sharp
dissection.
• The temporalis and medial pterygoid
muscles are split, and the nerve is located,
clamped and then cut below the instrument.
• Then the mental nerve is clamped at the
mental foramen and avulsed
• The indications, advantages, complications, and benefits of
peripheral neurectomy in patients with trigeminal neuralgia The aim of this prospective study is to evaluate the long
were studied in detail in 40 patients treated between 1982 term efficacy of peripheral neurectomy with and without
and 1991. the placement of stainless steel screws in the foramina and
• Twenty-eight patients had previously received to calculate the mean remission period.
radiofrequency thermocoagulation: peripheral neurectomy
was performed for pain recurrence. Study was done on 2 groups of 14 patients each
• These patients had excellent or good pain relief for at least 5
years postsurgery. Post-surgical pain relief varied from 15 months to 24
• Of the 12 patients who had peripheral neurectomy as their months in cases where neurectomy was done without
only procedure, seven had an excellent result and five had a
good result.
placing stainless steel screws in the foramina. Those cases
where peripheral neurectomy was done along with the
• Five of the patients had recurrence of pain after 2 years but
responded well to a second neurectomy. placement of stainless steel screws in the foramina, none of
the patient had painful symptoms even after minimum 2
• Elderly patients who experienced pain in the first and second
divisions of the trigeminal distributions were the best years of follow-up.
candidates. Peripheral neurectomy is an effective, safe
procedure for elderly patients who suffer from trigeminal
neuralgia and have a limited life span.
Cryotherapy-
• Cryotherapy is the therapeutic use of
extremely low temperatures to destroy
cells by crystallizing the cytosol to obtain
pain relief.
• Under local anesthesia, the affected nerve
is exposed surgically and a cryoprobe is
placed directly on the nerve for three 2-
minute freeze-thaw cycles.
• Few complications have been reported;
sensation, although initially lost, returns
before pain recurs.
Neurolytic Peripheral Blocks-
• Neurolytic peripheral blocks of the trigeminal nerve and its branches
are usually done with phenol or alcohol.
• A paper by Fardy and Patton, reported on a series of 413 alcohol blocks
administered over a 20-year period. The mean period of pain relief was
13 months, and only three (0.73%) significant complications were
noted. These included local tissue necrosis, diplopia, and sensory loss.
• Disadvantages to this procedure include sensory loss in the distribution
of the treated nerve and a high rate of recurrence of pain owing to
nerve regeneration with subsequent deafferentation pain.
Gasserian Ganglion Techniques-
• Techniques targeting the Gasserian ganglion can broadly
be classified into ablative and decompressive
approaches.
• Percutaneous trigeminal ablation of the Gasserian
ganglion is usually performed by a specially designed
device inserted into the cheek or through the mouth.
• Under radiographic guidance with fluoroscopy or CT,
the device is directed through the foramen ovale into the
Gasserian ganglion or retrogasserian rootlets.
• The methods of ablation typically include
radiofrequency coagulation, glycerol injection, and
mechanotrauma by balloon ablation.
Radiofrequency Thermocoagulation-
• Radiofrequency thermocoagulation is the most common surgical
treatment for trigeminal neuralgia.
• The foreman ovale is identified with a C-arm fluoroscopy. A 2-mm
active-ended RF electrode is inserted and advanced parallel to the axis of
the fluoroscopy till passing the foramen ovale border. After aspiration
test stimulation was applied at 2 Hz, 0.1–1.5 V for motor stimulation and
50–100 Hz, 0.1–1.5 V for sensory stimulation with observing movement
and sensory changes. After confirming the position of the electrode,
radiofrequency thermocoagulation is applied at 70 °C for 90 s.
• Kondziolka and associates reported 80% initial pain relief in 106 patients
who were followed for 18 months. Ten percent of the patients developed
dysesthesia as a complication
Decompressive Procedures-
• The compression of the trigeminal nerve from blood vessels or tumors is
thought to result in demyelination of the nerve.
• Microvascular decompression involves a craniotomy to expose the nerve
at the base of the brainstem and to then insert a tiny
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) pad between the compressing vessel and
the nerve. This Teflon pad isolates the nerve from the pulsating effect and
pressure of the blood vessel
Cisternal Segment
• 2 roots in cisternal segment- Larger motor root anteriorly and smaller sensory nervus
intermedius posteriorly
• 2 roots join together and pass anterolaterally through cerebello pontine angle cistern
with CNVIII to internal auditory canal (IAC)
Intratemporal Segment
CNVII further divided in temporal bone into 4 segments: IAC, labyrinthine, tympanic,
and mastoid
• IAC segment: Porus acusticus to internal auditory canal fundus
• Labyrinthine segment: Connects fundal CNVII to geniculate ganglion (anterior genu)
• Tympanic segment: Connects anterior to posterior genu
• Mastoid segment: Inferiorly directed from posterior genu to stylomastoid foramen
Extracranial Segment
CNVII exits skull base through stylomastoid foramen to enter parotid space
Parotid CNVII passes lateral to retromandibular vein
Ramifies within parotid, passes anteriorly to innervate muscles of facial expression
Course-
• Attached to the lateral part of lower border of pons by two roots-
motor and sensory. Sensory root is also called nervus intermedius.
• The two roots run laterally and forwards with the 8th cranial nerve
to reach interna acoustic meatus.
• In the meatus, the motor root lies in a groove on the eighth nerve,
with the sensory root intervening. Here the seventh nerve is
accompanied by labyrinthine vessels.
• At the bottom of the meatus, the two roots fuse to form a single
trunk, which lies in petrous temporal bone.
• Within the canal, the course of the nerve can be divided into three
parts by two bends
MARGINAL MANDIBULR
BUCCAL NERVE
NERVE
House Brackmann Grading for clinical evalution
Grade Definition
Elecromyography Records electrical potential generated by muscle cells when these cells are electrically or
neurologically activated
Nerve excitability test Performed by stimulating nerve at stylomastoid foramen and then determining subjectively
the presence of twitch response in facial musculature
Nerve conduction velocity Electrodes are placed along nerve to measure the velocity
Maximal stimulation test Nerve is excited using maximal stimulation and presence of twitch response noted.
Electroneurography Bipolar electrodes deliver an impulse to the FN at the stylomastoid foramen
Summation potential is recorded by another device
Intra operative monitoring-
• Intra operative monitoring of the facial
nerve is done using nerve monitors.
• Goals- Early identification of nerve
• Warning the surgeon of nerve involved in
tumour
• Mapping the course of the nerve
• Reducing the mechanical trauma during
operative procedures
• Evaluation and prognosis of facial nerve
function
Facial nerve palsy
• Facial paralysis is a devastating
condition where the muscles of facial
expression are paralyzed
• Complete denervation
• Paralysis of more than 4-6 weeks
• Incomplete return of function in 60 days
• Recurrent facial palsy
• Nerve excitability test sows a difference of 3.5 mA
on both the sides
Danger zone 2-
• The temporal branch of the facial nerve runs under the temporo
parietal fascia- SMAS layer, having emerged from beneath the
parotid gland at the level of zygoma on its way to innervate the
frontalis muscle in the forehead
• Outlined by drawing a line 0. cm below the tragus to a point 2
cm above the lateral eyebrow, drawing a second line to the
zygoma to the lateral orbital rim and connecting these two lines
by a third line
Facial danger zone 3-
• This zone contains the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve at a point in
its course where it is most vulnerable as the platysma- SMAS layer thins below
and the nerve courses superiorly to innervate the depressor anguli oris muscle.
• Described by drawing a point on the middle of the mandibular body2 cm posterior
to the oral commissure and drawing a circle with radius 2 cm around this point.
Point of bifurcation-
• From lowest point of External bony Auditory Meatus
to the Bifurcation 1.5- 2.8cm*
Mean 2.3 +_ 0.28cm
118
Facial nerve grafting-
• Great auricular nerve • Suralnerve
– Usually in surgical field – Located 1 cm posterior to the lateral
malleolus
– Located within an incision made from the
mastoid tip to the angle of the mandible – Can provide 35cm of length
– Very useful in cross facial anastomosis
– Can only harvest 7-10cm of this nerve – Loss of sensation to lateral calf and foot
– Loss of sensation to lower auricle with use
Treatment options - Iatrogenic injury
• If transected during surgery
– Explore 5-10mm of the involved segment
– Stimulate both proximally and distally
• If loss of function is noted following surgery, wait 2 -3 hr and then re-evaluate the
patient.
For anesthetic to wear off
• Waited time and still paralysis
• Unsure of nerve integrity – re-explore as soon as possible
• Integrity of nerve known to be intact
High dose steroids – prednisone at 1mg/kg/day x 10 days
then taper.
72 hours : ENoG to assess degree of degeneration
» >90% degeneration – re-explore
» <90% degeneration – monitor
• If worsening paralysis occurs re-explore
• if no regeneration, but no worsening, timing of exploration or whether to is
controversial
Take home message-
• The trigeminal nerve and facial nerve, being the most important nerves
of the face require special attention during any maxillofacial surgical
procedure.
• The proper knowledge of anatomy, use of modern technologies and
modified incisions can be useful in preventing the nerve damage.
• Proper diagnosis and evaluation of the patient are the most important
factors governing the outcome of treatment of nerve damage
• Any successful nerve repair depends on factors like timing, surgical
technique, type of graft and nature of the injured nerve
References-
• Youngmans and Winn neurological surgery- 7th Edition
• Katusic S, Williams DB, Beard CM, et al. Epidemiologynand clinical features of idiopathic trigeminal
neuralgia and glossopharyngeal neuralgia: similarities and differences, Rochester, Minnesota, 1945-1984.
Neurepidemiology. 1991;10:276-281.
• Handbook of neurosurgery by Mark S Greenberg
• Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society. The international classification
of headache disorders. 2nd ed. Cephalalgia. 2004;24(suppl 1):9-160.
• Jannetta PJ. Neurovascular compression in cranial nerve and systemic disease. Ann Surg. 1980;192(4):518-
525
• Handbook of local anesthesia by Stanley F Malamed- 6th edition
• Atlas of surgery of the facial nerve by DS Grewal
• Pubmed search
• Science direct topics
Thank you-