ELECTRONICS

Dr. Mrunal R. Rane

Department of Biomedical Engineering
 Theory of p-n junction
• When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined
to n-type semiconductor the contact surface is called a
p-n junction.

• The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor diode .

• The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –
ve acceptor ions and +vely charged holes. The right side
material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions
and free electrons
Diffusion Depletion Region

Barrier Potential or Junction Potential

0.6 V for Silicon

0.2 V for Germanium
p-n junction as diode
• Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form
pn junction, then there is a tendency for the free
electrons from n-type to diffuse over to the p-side
and holes from p-type to the n-side . This process is
called diffusion
• As the free electrons move across the junction from
n-type to p-type, +ve donor ions are uncovered.
Hence a +ve charge is built on the n-side of the
junction. At the same time, the free electrons cross
the junction and uncover the –ve acceptor ions by
filling in the holes. Therefore a net –ve charge is
established on p-side of the junction.
p-n junction as diode
• When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions
is uncovered further diffusion is prevented.
• Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of
charge carriers. This is called potential barrier or
junction barrier Vo. The potential barrier is of the
order of 0.1 to 0.3V.
• Note: outside this barrier on each side of the
junction, the material is still neutral. Only inside the
barrier, there is a +ve charge on n-side and –ve
charge on p-side. This region is called depletion layer.
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing
V-I Characteristics of a diode
DC or static resistance.
The resistance offered by
the diode to the DC
supply when forward
biased. It is the ratio of dc
voltage across the diode to
the dc current flowing
through it.
AC resistance or dynamic
resistance.
The forward biased p-n
junction resistance is rd ohm, it
is called AC resistance or
dynamic resistance. It is
equivalent to slope of voltage-
current of the PN junction.
Transition capacitance (CT)
When p-n junction diode is reverse biased the capacitance exist across the
junction due to the presence of immobile charges. This capacitance is called
transition or space charge capacitance CT.

Reverse Saturation Current

When p-n junction diode is reverse biased, there is no current due to majority
carriers.Yet there is small current due to minority carriers across the junction. This is
current is called reverse saturation current.

Diffusion capacitance (CD)

Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Change in the
amount of charge due to change in applied voltage is called diffusion capacitance.
Diffusion capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is
denoted as CD.
Rectifiers
• Rectification – transforming AC signal into a signal
with one polarity
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier
• Bridge
• Center tapped
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
 HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
• The primary of the transformer is connected to ac supply. This
induces an ac voltage across the secondary of the transformer.
• During the positive half cycle of the input voltage the polarity
of the voltage across the secondary forward biases the diode.
As a result a current IL flows through the load resistor, RL.
• The forward biased diode offers a very low resistance and
hence the voltage drop across it is very small. Thus the voltage
appearing across the load is practically the same as the input
voltage at every instant.
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
• During the negative half cycle of the input voltage
the polarity of the secondary voltage gets reversed.
As a result, the diode is reverse biased.
• Practically no current flows through the circuit and
almost no voltage is developed across the resistor.
All input voltage appears across the diode itself.
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
• Hence we conclude that when the input voltage is
going through its positive half cycle, output voltage
is almost the same as the input voltage and during
the negative half cycle no voltage is available across
the load.
• This explains the unidirectional pulsating dc
waveform obtained as output. The process of
removing one half the input signal to establish a dc
level is aptly called half wave rectification.
Half wave waveform
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
Ripple Factor
• Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of
ac component to the dc component in the output.

Ripple factor =
 
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER
 Full Wave Rectifier: Centre Tapped
It comprises of two half-wave circuits, connected in such a manner that
conduction takes place through one diode during one half of the power cycle and
through the other diode during the second half of the cycle.
Positive Half Cycle
Negative Half Cycle
Full Wave Rectifier : Bridge Rectifier
The most important disadvantage of the centre-
tapped rectifier is that it brings in the use of a heavy
transformer with three terminals at its output, i.e., a
centre-tapped transformer. The centre tapping may
not be perfect in most cases. This problem can be
solved by designing another circuit with four diodes
and a simple transformer. This is called a bridge
rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier : Bridge Rectifier
Waveform for full-wave rectifier
The waveform of full wave rectifier is
Advantages of a bridge rectifier
(i) In the bridge circuit a transformer without a centre tap is used.
(ii) The bridge circuit requires a smaller transformer as compared to
a full-wave rectifier giving the identical rectified dc output
voltage.
(iii) For the same dc output voltage, the PIV rating of a diode in a
bridge rectifier is half of that for a full -wave circuit.
(iv) The bridge circuit is more appropriate for high-voltage
applications, thus, making the circuit compact.
Disadvantages of a bridge rectifier
(i) Two or more diodes are required in case of a bridge rectifier, as a
full-wave rectifier uses two diodes whereas a bridge rectifier uses
four diodes.
(ii) The amount of power dissipated in a bridge circuit is higher as
compared to a full-wave rectifier. Hence, the bridge rectifier is not
efficient as far as low voltages are concerned.
 Clippers
● Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits, are used to
eliminate portion of a signal that are above or below a
specified level – clip value.
● Series Clippers
● Positive
● Negative
● Parallel Clippers
● Positive
● Negative
● The purpose of the diode is that when it is turn on, it
provides the clip value
Series Clipper
 Parallel Clippers
Positive Clippers

Negative Clippers
Clampers
It is a network constructed of a diode , a resistor and a
capacitor that shift a waveform to a different dc level without
changing the appearance of the applied signal
 Consider, the sinusoidal input voltage
signal, vI.
 1st 900, the capacitor is charged up to
the peak value of Vi which is VM.
 Then, as Vi moves towards the –ve
cycle,
 the diode is reverse biased.
 Ideally, capacitor cannot discharge,
hence Vc = VM
 By KVL, we get

NOTE: The input signal is shifted by a dc

level; and that the peak-to-peak value is
the same
Diode is “on” and capacitor charges to V Volts

Diode is “off”
Positive Clampers

-ve Half Cycle

FB, C charges to Max Value ie –Vm
So Vc =-Vm

+ve Half Cycle

RB
Vi-Vc-Vo=0
Vo=Vi-Vc
Vo=Vi+Vm

Vi=0 ,Vo=Vm
Vi=Vm ,Vo=2Vm
Vi=-Vm ,Vo=0
Negative Clampers

+ve Half Cycle

FB, C charges to Max Value ie Vm
So Vc=Vm

-ve Half Cycle

RB
Vi-Vc-Vo=0
Vo=Vi-Vc
Vo=Vi-Vm

Vi=0 ,Vo=-Vm
Vi=Vm ,Vo=0
Vi=-Vm ,Vo=-2Vm
 Reference
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7O3Hbkkt624

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3O0p9034wI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pof2UmQAY_w