ISLAMIC TRADITIONS OF

THE MALAY WORLD:

COMPETING TRENDS

DR AZHAR IBRAHIM ALWEE

DEPARTMENT OF MALAY STUDIES
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
“Thus the Islamic faith had, in many
respects, a revolutionizing and
modernizing effect on Indonesian and
Malay society.”
W F Wertheim
“Knowledge has historicity. It never is, it
is always in the process of being.”
Paulo
Freire
INTRODUCTION
• The spread of Islam in the Malay Archipelago was a long historical process. This
process of Islamisation which evolved in stages, is still ongoing. This region is the
last cultural frontier that received Islam, yet witnessed the most successful and
peaceful process of Islamisation in world history.
• Today this region is the home to the most populous Muslim country in the world,
namely Indonesia, with considerable Muslim populations in Malaysia, South
Thailand, South Philippines, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Burma and Singapore.
• The dynamics of the spread of Islam must be considered seriously as it could
explain the types of religious orientations and traditions that had emerged and
evolved in this region.
Various factors could explain the spread of Islam in this region, by considering the following:

( b ) the place origin of (c) the agents of

(a) period of time (9th, which Islam was transmission, such as Sufi
12th 14th C) introduced to this part of missionaries, traders,
the world rulers initiatives etc

C. A. Majul, "Theories of the introduction and expansion of Islam in Malaysia," International

Association of Historians of Asia. Biennial Conference Proceedings, Taiwan, 1962.
• There are various theories put forward to explain this phenomenon. Many scholars debated about
this theory of Islamisation, with each proposing their own hypothesis and evidences. What is clear is
that the process of Islamisation came from various sources, agents, and time period, all of which
conditioned and coloured the kind of Islamisation that took place in this part of the world.
• For instance, there are areas in this region, especially the coastal Sumatra, received Islam much
earlier in comparison to the inner parts of Java and Borneo, thus explaining the intensity of
Islamisation of that area.
• Also in this process of Islamisation, we should consider two important points:

( b ) Are there conflicts or

( a ) To what extent Islam has
syncretic blending between Islam
influenced or conditioned the
and the old pre-Islamic beliefs
indigenous culture, or has Islam
and to what extent it has
develop something ‘new’ and
transformed into a distinctively
obliterate the local traditions and
Islamic character and continued
customs?
until today.
• From the process and stages of this Islamisation, we can Click icon to add picture
understand the extent of which Islam has penetrated into
the cultural life of the people here.
• Thus evaluating the contribution of Islam in the evolution
and transformation of Malay culture and society must be
given emphasis, rather than focusing on the origin and
agents of Islamisation
• Syed Muhammad Naguib al-Attas --- Islam had prepared the
Malay civilization for the emerging new world, prior to the
period of Western colonial expansion in this region.
• Islam had introduced to this civilization the spirit of
rationalism, philosophical thinking, even before the coming
of the Westerners who claimed to bring enlightenment and
civilization to the people of this region.
ISLAM AND POPULAR BELIEFS – CONTESTED SITES
• The claims of the orientalist that
Hinduism as the core in Malay culture,
while Islam as only a veneer to the
Malay culture, is repeated in the
fundamentalist discourse, thus
emphasising that their dakwah is to
target all pre-Islamic beliefs, and often
attributing all the negativities in Malay
culture ( such as Malay feudalism ) as
originated from Hinduism.
" Therefore, it appears significant that while Islam does exert
some influence on certain notions in spirit beliefs, those Islamic
elements in folk beliefs are reinterpreted in terms of the
patterns of the retentions of the ancient religion. The integration
of the Islamic elements according to the patterns of spirit beliefs
and practice toward the supernatural-- folk beliefs and religion --
are distinguished by the people. From the standpoint of Islam,
no full syncretism between the two systems is possible. Any
attempts at interpreting indigenous beliefs in terms of Islam are
at best regarded as a lack of understanding of the true
teachings......religious leaders of the community would like to
see not only the total abandonment of the non-Islamic beliefs,
but also of the conception of those Islamic elements which have
been integrated into the system of folk beliefs...."
(Mohd Taib Osman
 (ii) Ideological (iii) Endogenous
and Group and Exogenous
Interest dynamics

(i) (iv) The effects of

Historical/Political dominant
Context Historico- orientation
Sociological
Analyses
( I ) the process of Islamisation and the evolution of competing religious thought
( II ) the contested orientations – the need to identify and evaluate

( c ) The
Humanistic
( b ) The
Orientation
Sufistic
( a ) The
Orientation
Feudal
Orientation
The Feudal Orientation
In this orientation we noted that the Malay ruling class interpreted
religion to boost their legitimacy, to such an extent that submission
and devotion to the ruler was seen as part of religious duty. As
demonstrated in court chronicles, religious idioms and symbols had
been incorporated in the creation of the myth of divine kingship.
Generally, the feudal orientation towards religion manifest the
following values and ideas: ( a ) servility to rulers and the
submission to their absolute power; ( b ) lack of respect for human
personality which undermines positive individualism; ( c )
indifference to social justice; ( d ) emphasis on the hierarchical
distinction in society; ( e ) obsession with power and authority for
its own sake; ( f ) preoccupation in indulging the senses and ( g )
downgrading of labour and work
• This orientation is largely represented in the court
narratives such as Hikayat Raja Pasai, Sejarah Melayu,
Hikayat Hang Tuah, Misa Melayu, Adat Raja-raja Melayu
and Undang-undang Melaka.
• The feudal orientation is generally marked by authoritarian
tendencies. The authoritarian idea in the feudal
orientation put forth the notion that the ideas of the ruling
class must not be questioned since its authority rest from
religious sanctions. The inclusion of the religious symbols
or idioms are actually part of the attempt to ( a ) portray
the religiosity of the feudal patron; (b) compensate
inadequacies or glaring contradictions in the feudal
thought and (c) justify the group's vested interest by using
religious authority as its basis
“Hadzihi duraru 'l-akhbar wa ghuraru ‘l-ammthal, inilah mutia
segala cetera dan cahaya segala peri umpamaan. Maka
barangsiapa membaca dia jangan dibicarakan dengan
sempurna bicara; kerana hikayat ini tahu kamu akan
perkataan sabda Nabi salla ‘llahu ‘alayhi wa sallam, Tafakkaru
fi ala’I ‘llah, wa la tafakkaru fi dzati’llah; yakni dibicarakan
olehmu pada segala kebesaran Allah, dan jangan kamu
fikirkan pada dzat Allah.”

"Hadzihi duraru 'l-akhbar wa ghuraru 'l-ammthal, here is

assembled the pearl of all narratives and the light of all
analogies. Whoever reads this work, let him not read it to the
exclusion of all else, for in reading this work one must
remember the words of the Prophet, peace be upon him, "
Tafakkaru fi ala'l 'llah, wa la tafakkaru fi dzati'llah", that is to
say concern yourself with the greatness of Allah, and think
not of the essence of Allah."
• Feudal orientation presents its conception of man. This feudal
conception of man is best represented in the character of Hang
Tuah as documented in Hikayat Hang Tuah which narrates an
exemplary fidelity and devotion of a Malay subject to his ruler. As
the opening line of the text reads:
• "This is the Hikayat of Hang Tuah, who is very loyal (setiawan) to
his master and who is ever more devoted in the service
(kebaktian) to his master."
• In its idea of social ordering, the feudal mode of thinking
emphasises more on the subject's obligation or submission to the
ruler. The ruler is not only believed to possess supernatural
powers of daulat, but he was regarded as God's representative on
earth (As Sultan Dzalallah fil ardh). The submission to the ruler is
unconditional, not unlike one's submission to God, because "when
one performed service to the ruler, it is like performing a service
to Allah."
In Undang-undang Melaka the obligations of the Malay
subjects to their ruler are stated clearly:
"Firstly, ( he is to be ) honourable in all his behaviour ;
secondly, ( he) abides by the commands of the ruler ; whether
he (the ruler ) is tyrannical or not, he ( the subject ) shall
follow his command; thirdly, he desires mercy from his
[ feudal] lord."
As exemplified in Undang-undang Melaka, laws or customs
imposed generally favoured the ruling class. Laws were not
uniformed and often set arbitrarily. The punishment or fines
imposed for the offence committed towards someone of
higher rank would be more severe than against the common
people.
Therefore, the values and ideas in the feudal orientation are
clearly in contrast to the values and ideals of Islam.
 THE HUMANISTIC ORIENTATION
This orientation demonstrates an outlook or mode of thinking which
affirms the progressive and enlightened values as enjoined in Islam.
The values and ideas that generally constitute the humanistic
orientation are as follows:
( a ) respect for human personality;
( b ) recognition of man's capability of realising his full potential;
( c ) respect for human life;
( d ) high value place on the use of reason and intellect by man to
determine his well-being;
( e ) emphasis of social justice and equality in society;
( f ) recognition of the dignity of labour and work and
( g ) emphasis of disciplined and frugal living.
• This orientation can be considered as a form of religious
humanism and it can be discerned generally in Taj Us-
Salatin and Hikayat Mareskalek, and few other texts
• Humanistic mode of thinking
• "elevate man's consciousness to transcend above his
irrational fear, dependence and submissiveness before
arbitrary power and tyrannical authority. They conveyed
the message that the full unfolding of the human spirit and
personality depends on the rejection of superficial and
irrational social values as the determinant of self-worth and
self-respect." ( Shaharuddin Maaruf)
• It "promotes the idea of sacredness of the human personality, and in that
way nurtures individualism in Malay thought and consciousness.
Individualism is built by affirming human personality beyond class and
social distinctions, and by linking it to a higher source of values and
philosophical anchorage."
• In its conception of social life, the humanistic orientation advocates
many positive values. Man is told that the world is the place for man to
attain his greatness and honour in it. The demise or failure in man is due
to his failure to know the world that is the allurement of the world,
which prevents him to do good work and lead a virtuous life on earth. It
also recognises the importance of reason and knowledge that are vital
for man's self-improvement and as guidance to life.
• In emphasising social justice, it shows the concern and commitment to
the wellbeing of all men.
SUFISTIC ORIENTATION
Basically this otherworldly sufistic orientation has the following
traits:
( a ) renunciation of the worldly life or material attachment;
( b ) fear of the latter as the cause of sin or impediment to
spiritual perfection;
( c ) emphasising withdrawal from the demands of the secular
world
( d ) in the rejection of the worldly life it is mainly preoccupied
with the hereafter.
However we need to distinguish between the Sufism
that is otherworldly in comparison to those that is
world affirming (this worldly )
The otherworldly sufistic orientation, is not the only
sufi orientation amongst the Malays.
Folk sufism, popular sufism that persisted in some
areas
But there is also a more “this-wordly” sufi tradition we
refer to a kind of sufi teaching that emphasises the
ethical dimension of Islam marked by a disciplined life
of religious devotion without having to reject this
world nor overt in its ascetical practices.
In the religious tradition of the Malays, this ethical
sufism, as incorporated in the teachings of Al-Ghazali, in
varying degrees, exerted some influences in several sufi
tarekat, such as the Ahmadiyah and Naqsyabandiyah
which are amongst the two leading sufi orders in this
region.
Sufism in general had penetrated both amongst the
ruling class and the common people. Some sufi
missionaries, had been identified as one of the agents
in the propagation of Islam in the Archipelago, it may be
the group which was responsible in the transmission
and dissemination of sufi ideas amongst the people in
the past.
• Two main strands of sufistic orientations that we can
note emerged in Malay religious experience.
• First is the ascetical-devotional sufism and the
second is the speculative theosophical sufism. The
former emphasises the ascetic efforts of purifying
the soul through a vigorous discipline of renunciation
involving the life of poverty, seclusion and other
forms of bodily austerities.
• The ascetical variant in Hikayat Sultan Ibrahim Ibn
Adham and parts of Bustanu's-Salatin
The theosophical-mystical variant, apart from its ascetic
practices, emphasises an inward religious experience by: ( a )
disregarding the world around; ( b ) purging oneself of
mundane interests and ( c ) abandoning one's self and
concentrating on ways to illumination or the goal of attaining
union with the Divine.

The theosophical doctrine which Hamzah Fansuri propagated

is essentially the doctrine of Wahdatul Wujud ( Unity of
Existence ) as propounded by Ibn Arabi. This doctrine
essentially affirms that the transcendent God is the only being
or principle of existence and that all other beings are modes
and forms of that one principle of existence.
• The humanistic orientation as discussed in this study
corresponds to the humanistic religion as conceptualised by
Fromm. The humanistic religion is marked by the aim of
achieving "the greatest strength, not the greatest
powerlessness" and to "experience of oneness with All,
based on one's relatedness to the world as it is grasped with
thought and with love."
• The other features of humanistic religion are: ( a) "[man has
to] develop his power of reason in order to understand
himself, his relationship to his fellow men and his position in
the universe"; ( b ) "recognize the truth, both with regard to
his limitations and his potentialities" ( c) "develop his
powers of love for others as well as for himself" and ( d ) "
faith is certainty of conviction, not assent to propositions on
credit of the proposer." Psychoanalysis and Religion
• Fromm's discussion on authoritarian religion has parallels to
the feudal orientation which we discussed above. According to
Fromm, authoritarian religion is marked by: ( a ) the surrender
to a power transcending man; ( b ) obedience being the main
virtue whereas disobedience, a greatest sin; ( c ) tendency to
emphasise human weaknesses, insignificance and
powerlessness; ( d ) and in its demand of the recognition of a
higher power, such demand, however does not lie "in the
moral qualities of deity, not in love or justice, but lie in the fact
that it has control, i.e. has power over man" ; ( e ) man can feel
strong if he submits totally to the powerful authority; ( f ) it
"postulates an ideal which is so abstract and so distant that it
has hardly any connection with the real life of real people";
( g ) sorrow and guilt predominates the prevailing mood.
Psychoanalysis and Religion, p. 49
 (b) Religious
Reformism

(a)Religious
(c)Religious
Traditionalis
Revivalism
m

3 Main Types of
Orientation
(contemporray)
( A ) RELIGIOUS TRADITIONALISM

( a ) Religious traditionalism – maintain the status quo—

whatever from the past is perfect ; past ulama’s formulation as
complete, final and absolute
( b ) The correct belief and practice ( amalan ) orthopraxis
( c ) The modern world as corrupt ( dunia fana )
( d ) Devotion to religion is supreme ; rituals as service to God
and completion of being human (taqwa )
( e ) The use of human reason (akal) has great limitation. Taklid
(blind imitation) is recommended
( f ) Their concern is very much religious in nature; their
approach to modern life ranges from outright rejection,
resistance, ambivalent or even neutral. But their articulations
are far more less reactive than those of the revivalists.
SHADES OF RELIGIOUS TRADITIONALISM
RELIGIOUS REFORMISM
(a) Religious reform in respond to the conservative religious
traditionalism. The need to see the religious teaching in its
historical context, and the need of religious thought of the present
to address the current challenges
(b) The legitimacy to ijtihad ( independent reasoning) in
formulating current laws and practices
(c) The need to affirm the use of human reason ( akal ) – its
legitimacy and efficacy
(d) The need to rethink the past practices and conceptions of belief
(e) The need of addressing the challenges of the modern world is
part of a religious duties and obligation
(f) Reforming, not in matters of basic dogma, but in the
understanding of the teachings especially that cover the social
dimension of Muslim life.
The reformist emerged from within the progressive strand of
the religious circles, in most cases they also received the
training in classical Islam as those conservative groups. But
their openness and exposure to exogenous ideas, stimulated
their drive to introduce reform from within.
A rational approach to Islam to them is the answer to enable
Muslim to confront the present challenges of development
Earliest expressions in the journal Al-Imam spearheaded by
Syed Sheikh al-Hadi’s circles. [ Inspired by the reformistic
ideas led by Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, the Grand Mufti, an
Azharite Syeikhul ]
Reformist voices not confined to the some ulamas
personalities, but also amongst intellectuals ( eg Zaba and
Alatas ), literati (Keris Mas and Kassim Ahmad )
Initially rejected. They could not make much
headway except to persist in small circles
But their reformistic ideas eventually taken up and
incorporated by the larger society.
1. The method of collection of zakat ; 2. the
education of girls ; 3. the use of modern bank ; 4.
the introduction of modern knowledge into
madrasah curriculum ; 5. sermon in Malay during
Friday service ; 6. female judges in shariah court etc
Weeding out several practices of popular Islamic
beliefs amongst Malays eg Keramat beliefs, Mandi
Safar
 RELIGIOUS REVIVALISM
Religious revivalism as orientation characterized by the following
traits
( a ) Exclusivism in thinking, seeing Islam as the only path, and
the “Islamic system” as the most legitimate and authentic
( b ) Assertive in public sphere, depart from the religious
traditionalists. Demanding a more stricter Islamic observances
( c ) Puritanical stance; condemning all practices and ideas
deemed as unIslamic or anathema to the Islamic tauhid
( d ) Concern over the believers’ creed and faith ( akidah /iman )
( e ) Lax in religious observances as the dissipation of religious
commitment [ “practicing Muslims” ]
( f ) Those amongst them who harbor political aspiration, the
idea of an Islamic State becomes their agenda or conviction –
only with the establishment of an
THE ISLAMIZING FERVOUR
A greater demand for Islamizing the socio-cultural life of the Malays –
( a ) tendency to be exclusivist in their position and approach –
“fundamentalist”
( b ) becoming vocal against “liberalism”, “pluralism”, as challenge to
Islamic authenticity and dominancy
(c) defensive of the religious conversions – especially Christian
evangelical propagation – anxiety of murtad [ apostasy ]
(e) moral-religious policing – “Talebanic” intrusion into individual space
—even imposing on others
(f) anti-Western rhetorics – all decadence as Western derived ; Western
collusion with Zionism as threat to Muslims
(g) anti-intellectualism [ pamphleteer Islam ] – Promoting “Islam is
Simple” – relegating the cumulative Islamic intellectual-religious
traditions -- Their intellectual hero – Muslim Brotherhood’s ideologue
Syed Qutb, Maududi, Hasan al-Banna, Maryam Jameelah etc
THE COMPETING IDEAS AT WORK
• For the progressivist/reformist, the affirmation and
embracement of the universal religious values and the
concern for the larger humanity is part of fulfilling the
excellence in the religious life. To emphasise again, we are
focussing on the religion primarily from the universal
message, and not on the doctrines or creed of the religion
per se.
• Understanding the dynamics of religion in society is
important, especially in the case of Malay society where
religion forms the central core of its worldview and its
practices manifest throughout their culture and lifestyle. If
we ignore this fact, our full understanding of Malay society
and its dynamic will be severely limited, if not an impossible
task.