Group 8

COLONIAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE RESHAPING OF
ISLAM, THE MUSLIM AND ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN

MALAYSIA
CHRISTINE LACE L. AMARELA

CLAIRE S. ILARDE
MAED - GENED
Mindanao State University,
General Santos City, 9500
1
COLONIAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE RESHAPING OF ISLAM, THE
MUSLIM AND ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
Besides Islam, the Southeast Asian region is heir to Hindu and Buddhist traditions as well as
to three European colonial systems of government and administration: British, Dutch and
French. It is evident that Islam has not escaped the influence of the others. Indeed, in some
aspects of life Islam has been considerably reformulated by them as a result of having had
to embed itself in a pre-Islamic metaphysical milieu and to undergo a process of reshaping
by the rational-scientific logic of the European technology of rule. It follows, therefore, that
in order to understand the state of contemporary Islam, Muslims and Islamic studies in
Southeast Asia one must begin with materials and data from the region, rather than with
some middle Eastern and theological formulation of Islam – while at the same time not
denying that Islam is a universalistic theology originating in the Arabic Middle East.
2
INTRODUCTION
Clifford Geertz and William

Roff
Geertz, an American cultural

anthropologist, and Roff, a historian of
Scottish origin, have significantly
contributed to Southeast Asian studies,
particularly in understanding Islam in the
Malay world.
3
INSIGHTS FROM GEERTZ AND ROFF
•Geertz introduced the concept of "Islam

observed" in his book of the same title.
•He emphasized the importance of understanding
"Islamic praxis" or the lived reality of Islam
among Javanese Muslims.
•Geertz's work, including his abangan-priyayi-
santri continuum, provided valuable insights into
cultural practices during the Sukarno era in
Indonesia.
4
CLIFFORD GEERTZ: ISLAM “OBSERVED”
•Roff responded to Geertz's culturalist perspective

with his concept of "Islam obscured."
•He argued against overemphasizing the cultural
face of Islam and highlighted its significant political
role, particularly through the Malay KERAJAAN, a
pre-colonial feudal polity.
•Roff's perspective broadened our understanding of
"political Islam" in the Malay world.
5
WILLIAM ROFF: ISLAM “OBSCURED”
•Islam encountered the rich and vibrant

Malay civilization, which had a history of at
least a thousand years.
•The process of Islam's integration into the
Malay world was not instantaneous but took
centuries.
•Just as Hinduism and Buddhism had to
adapt to indigenous beliefs, Islam too
underwent a process of "embedment" into
the sociological and historical contours of
the Malay world.
6
ISLAM’S ENCOUNTER WITH THE MALAY CIVILIZATION
•European colonialism brought

significant changes to the Malay
world, impacting both Islam and local
cultures.
•Islam and other religions were

marginalized and subjected to colonial
forms of knowledge.
•The process of "de-embedment" and

"re-embedment" reshaped Islam in
response to colonial dynamics.
7
INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN COLONIALISM
•Islam in the Malay world underwent multiple

embedment processes within sociological and
historical contexts.
•It is essential for scholars to recognize and

analyze "embedded Islam" to understand its
ontology.
•The concept of "Islam embedded" sheds light

on the complex process of Islam's integration
into the Malay world.
8
THE CONCEPT OF “EMBEDDED ISLAM”
•Islam had a significant impact on pre-

colonial Southeast Asia across three major
aspects: spirituality, intellectual
contribution, and the establishment of new
social order through Shariah law.
•Understanding these elements is crucial for

our contemporary understanding of Islam
and Muslims in the region.
9
THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF ISLAM IN THE MALAY WORLD
•Islam in the Malay world played a

transformative role in both the "body" and
"soul" of societies.
•Islamic mysticism, particularly tasawwuf,

influenced spiritual practices and
purification of the heart and intellect.
•Figures like Al-Attas argued that Islam

elevated spirituality, turning Malays away
from mythology and instilling a sense of
worth and nobility.
10
SPIRITUALITY
•Islam brought intellectual and rational

refinement to the Malay world,
challenging pre-Islamic beliefs and
promoting philosophical discourse.
•Works like Al-Raniri's "Sirat al-

Mustaqim" contributed significantly to
Islamic intellectual tradition in the
region.
11
INTELLECTUAL CONTRIBUTION
•Shariah law played a central role in

governance under the Malay-Muslim
KERAJAAN.
•The application of Shariah, seen in

legal codes like the Malacca Digest and
Maritime Laws, provided solutions to
various legal disputes and regulated
conduct in society.
12
ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW SOCIAL ORDER THROUGH SHARIAH
•Despite Islam's dominance in

governance, tensions arose with the
continued practice of pre-Islamic
customs, such as adat pepateh and adat
temenggong.
•Conflicts between Shariah and pre-

Islamic rituals highlight the complexity of
religious and cultural integration in the
Malay world.
13
CONFLICT WITH PRE-ISLAMIC CUSTOMS
Impact of British
Colonialism on
Southeast Asia
14
IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIALISM ON SOUTHEAST ASIA
•Colonialism involved not just physical

conquest but also the domination of
indigenous 'epistemological space,' the
systems of knowledge and
understanding.
•Indigenous thought systems were
dismantled and replaced with foreign
epistemologies through colonial
'investigative modalities.'
•Investigative modalities included
defining necessary information,
gathering knowledge, ordering and
classifying it, and transforming it into
usable forms like legal codes and
educational curricula.
15
Bernard Cohn's concept of colonial epistemological conquest
•Indigenous thought systems were

disempowered through colonial policies
that marginalized traditional
institutions and knowledge.
•British colonialism relegated
indigenous Islamic components to a
peripheral role, diminishing their
influence within the redefined
governance system.
16
Disempowerment of indigenous thought systems
•British colonialism replaced indigenous

epistemologies with foreign ones through
systematic application of investigative
modalities.
•This included imposing British legal codes,
educational curricula, and administrative
structures that prioritized secularism and
marginalized Islamic influence.
17
Replacement with foreign epistemology through investigative modalities
•British colonialism in Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaya,

redefined the traditional concept of KERAJAAN, which
previously fused 'church' (Islam) and 'state.’
•Through colonial influence, KERAJAAN underwent

transformation, separating 'church' (Islam) from 'state'
governance.
•This reconfiguration marginalized the indigenous Islamic

component, perceiving it as 'traditional' and non-rational, while
elevating the modern secular colonial state as the dominant
authority.
18
Transformation of KERAJAAN
•British colonial rule introduced a clear separation between

'church' (Islam) and 'state,' delineating spheres of influence
and authority.
•The Pangkor Treaty (1874) formalized this separation,

granting British control over governance while
acknowledging Malay Sultans' jurisdiction over religious and
customary matters.
•The British aimed to limit Islamic law to religious affairs,

introducing secular legal systems and excluding Islamic
influence from broader governance areas.
19
•British colonialism imposed a 'secular modern' governance

system, prioritizing secular policies and institutions over
traditional religious ones.
•This included bureaucratic changes, judicial reforms, and

educational policies aimed at secularizing governance and
marginalizing Islamic influence.
•British policies favored English medium schools and secular

education, diminishing the importance of Islamic education and
traditional religious institutions.
20
The British bureaucratic presence and policies in Malaya were characterized by several key
aspects:
1. Establishment of British Residency and Control: British intervention began indirectly in

1786 with the acquisition of Penang from Kedah. This gradually expanded to direct
involvement in areas traditionally under the Malay Sultans' jurisdiction. Treaties like the
Pangkor Treaty (1874) solidified British authority, allowing them to appoint Residents who
exerted significant influence over governance.
2. Separation of Religion and Secular Matters: The Pangkor Treaty delineated clear
boundaries, granting the British control over secular affairs while recognizing the Sultans'
authority over religion and Malay customs. This separation aimed to limit Islamic influence
in areas such as politics, administration, law, economics, and education, relegating religious
affairs to the jurisdiction of the Sultans.
21
BUREAUCRATIC CHANGES
3. Transformation of Religious Administration: British reforms established institutions like

the Council of Islamic Affairs and Malay Customs, which marginalized Islam to the sphere of
religious affairs, excluding it from broader governance. The British implemented secular legal
systems, sidelining Islamic law in favor of their own legal framework, as seen in court
decisions like Ainan vs. Syed Bakar (1939).
4. Impact on Education: British policies reshaped educational priorities, favoring English

medium schools in urban areas while establishing Malay medium and Islamic religious
schools in rural regions. The focus on secular education marginalized Islamic teachings and
language, leading to the formation of elite institutions like Malay College Kuala Kangsar,
which promoted secular education among the Malay aristocracy.
22
BUREAUCRATIC CHANGES
In legal matters, British policies marginalized Shariah law, prioritizing secular legal systems.
A notable case, Ainan vs. Syed Bakar (1939), underscored this shift, where civil law
superseded Shariah in determining the legitimacy of a child born shortly after marriage.
Furthermore, British bureaucratic reforms restricted the power and jurisdiction of Islamic
judges (qadis), diminishing their authority compared to civil judges. The British-appointed
judiciary, trained in English law, favored secular legal principles, further marginalizing
Shariah.
23
LEGAL SYSTEM AND SHARIAH
In education, Islamic instruction was sidelined

or transformed to conform to modern
standards. British policies established English
medium schools in urban areas, prioritizing
secular education over Malay and Islamic
schooling. Elite institutions like Malay College
Kuala Kangsar (MCKK) promoted secular
education, contributing to the separation of
traditional Malay leadership from the masses.
24
LEGAL SYSTEM AND SHARIAH
Transformation of Islamic Education under British

Policy:
•British colonial rule introduced significant changes in the
educational landscape of Malaya.
•Islamic education, which was previously central to Malay
society, underwent reconfiguration to align with British colonial
objectives.
•Traditional Islamic educational institutions, such as pondok
and madrasah, faced challenges to their prominence and
effectiveness.
•The British administration implemented policies aimed at
segregating Islamic education from secular education and
promoting English medium schools.
25
IMPACT ON EDUCATION
Decline of Traditional Islamic Schooling Methods:
•Before British intervention, Islamic education played a

crucial role in transmitting religious knowledge and cultural
values.
•Traditional methods of Islamic schooling, including
recitation, memorization of the Qur’an, and instruction in
religious principles, were gradually marginalized.
•The introduction of secular schools and the prioritization of
English medium education led to a decline in the influence
and effectiveness of traditional Islamic schooling methods.
26
IMPACT ON EDUCATION
Promotion of English Medium Schools and Secular

Education: •British colonial administrators established English medium
schools primarily in urban areas, favoring them over Malay
medium and Islamic religious schools.
•The purpose of English medium schools was to produce
individuals suited for administrative roles within the colonial
apparatus.
•Malay and Islamic education were relegated to a lower status
compared to English education, reflecting the colonial preference
for secularism and Westernization.
•Elite institutions like the Malay College Kuala Kangsar (MCKK)
were established to train Malay aristocrats in secular subjects,
further promoting secular education among the privileged class.
•The British administration allowed the establishment of Christian
missionary schools, contributing to the diversification of
educational options but also fostering a secular educational
environment.
27
IMPACT ON EDUCATION
Formation and
Purpose
MCKK was established in 1905 by the
British administration specifically for the
children of aristocrats. Its location in
Kuala Kangsar, Perak, positioned it as a
prestigious educational institution. The
primary aim was to educate "Malays of
good families" and prepare them for roles
in the government service, particularly in
subordinate positions.
28
ESTABLISHMENT OF ELITE INSTITUTIONS
Emphasis on Subordinate Government

Roles
The curriculum and ethos of MCKK were

designed to groom Malay students for roles
within the colonial administration. While the
school achieved excellence in academics, it
also contributed to the distancing of traditional
Malay leadership from the general populace.
This emphasis on preparing students for
subordinate government roles reinforced the
hierarchical structure of colonial governance.
29
Dichotomy between Religious and Secular Education:

Alongside MCKK, the British administration
promoted secular education through English
medium schools, prioritizing them over Malay
medium and Islamic religious schools. This
policy favored English education and relegated
Malay and Islamic education to a lower status.
Additionally, the Qur'an was taught separately
from the Malay language in schools, and
teachers' allowances were only provided for
Malay language instruction, further
marginalizing religious education.
30
•Muslims in Malaysia responded to colonialism through two major forms: anti-British

political movements and internal contestations.
•The anti-British political movements were diverse, arising from various religious, political,
and economic motivations within the Malay community.
•The emergence of internal contestations among Malay-Muslims was influenced by the
governance changes from KERAJAAN to kerajaan brought about by British restructuring.
•Internal contestations centered around three main motivations: conservatism, reformism,
and nationalism, with roots in either 'pristine Islam' ideology or interactions with modernity
introduced by British colonialism.
31
COLONIALISM AND THE MUSLIM RESPONSE IN MALAYSIA
•In Malaysia and other parts of the Malay world, traditional Islamic scholars known as
ulama resisted Western imperialism, particularly British colonialism.
•Trained in the oral-based pondok tradition of Islamic education, the ulama viewed British
presence as a threat to Islam, leading to the emergence of anti-British movements.
•The 1857 murder of the Perak Resident, J.W.W. Birch, in Pasir Salak, Perak, exemplified
the strong resistance against British rule, fueled by religious sentiments.
•In Terengganu, the spirit of jihad against British rule became prominent in the 1920s, with
ulama opposing English land law that conflicted with Islamic principles of property
ownership.
•British Resident H.W. Thomson acknowledged the significant role of Islamic leaders in the
opposition to British rule, emphasizing the deep-rooted religious fervor in Terengganu.
32
THE ANTI-BRITISH MOVEMENT
•The Gerakan Pembaharuan (Reform Movement) in

Malaya was led by the 'Middle East Stream' influenced
by modernist Arabic reformists like Jamal al-Din al-
Afghani and Muhammad 'Abduh.
•Reformists like Sayyid Shaikh al-Hadi and Shaikh Tahir

Jalal al-Din advocated for educational reform and
criticized traditional practices.
33
Internal Contestations: Of Conservatism, Reformism and Nationalism
•Islamic ideology was utilized in nationalist movements,

with figures like Haji Wan Ahmad advocating for Pan-
Islamism.
•Malay society witnessed heated debates between reformists

and traditional ulama, categorized as Kaum Muda
(reformist) and Kaum Tua (traditionalist) respectively.
•Muslim reformists aimed to elevate Malay society through

critical understanding of the Qur'an and educational
reforms.
34
•The Parti Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM) and UMNO emerged

as political entities opposing British colonialism, with differing
ideologies regarding the role of Islam in governance.
•The establishment of Hizb al-Muslimin (HAMIM) aimed at
emphasizing Islam in politics and society, facing opposition from
British authorities.
•PEPERMAS and MATA were established to address economic and
religious aspects respectively, demanding greater Muslim
representation in governance.
•PAS (Pan Malayan Islamic Party) emerged demanding the creation of
an Islamic state, becoming a significant force in Malay-Muslim
politics.
35
•UMNO formed alliances with other ethnic
parties, controlling the political landscape and
advocating for a secular state despite
recognizing Islam as the country's religion.
•Malay-Muslim opposition during colonialism
was diverse, reflecting differing theological,
political, and social perspectives within the
community.
36
•The Malaysian Constitution plays a pivotal role in shaping

Malaysian Islam and Islamic education, defining their socio-
political space.
•The Constitution designates every Malay person as
automatically Muslim, making religion the ethnic identifier for
Malays.
•This provision has led to Malay politics being primarily an
intra-Muslim factional contestation.
•Inter-ethnic politics post-Independence has been characterized
by a struggle over identity politics among the Malay, Chinese,
and Indian communities.
37
ISLAM AND ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN POSTCOLONIAL MALAYSIA
The special position of Islam as provided in the Malaysian Constitution of 1957 is as

follows:
• Islam is the religion of the Federation;
• There is no religious head for the whole Federation. The King continues to be the head of
the Muslim religion in his own negeri and it is provided that he shall be the head of the
Muslim religion in Malacca, Penang, in the Federal Territory and in Sabah and Sarawak.
Each of the other states has its own ruler as the head of the Islamic religion in that state;
• Negeri law may control or restrict the propagation of any religious doctrine or belief
among persons professing the Islamic religion;
• Other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation.
This means that every religious group has the right to manage its own religious affairs; to
establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes; and to acquire
and own property and hold and administer it in accordance with the law
38
Status of Islamic Law
•Islamic law in Malaysia is subordinate to civil
law, with limited jurisdiction in family law and
Muslim religious offenses.
•Shari’ah courts have limited powers and their
jurisdiction is not clearly defined in the
Constitution.
39
Fragmentation and Pluralization
•Fragmentation and pluralization characterize
the legal position of Islam in Malaysia.
•Interpretation of Shari’ah laws varies between
states, leading to differences in practices such
as determining the start of Ramadan.
40
Pluralistic Islamic Education
•The plurality of Islamic teachings and
legal practices is mirrored in the Islamic
education system in Malaysia.
•Separate policies for Islamic education
are developed by the federal and state
governments.
41
Weaknesses in Islamic Religious Knowledge
•Islamic Religious Knowledge is taught as
a single subject in the national education
system but lacks comprehensive
examination and coherent syllabus.
•Lack of comparative religious study and
integration with practical aspects weaken
the subject's effectiveness.

42
Decline of Traditional Religious Schools
•Traditional pondok and madrasah schools
began losing influence from the 1950s and
1960s.
•Factors contributing to the decline include
weaknesses in curriculum, lack of job
opportunities, and preference for secular
education.
43
Revival of Islamic Education
•Since the 1970s, there has been a revival
of interest in Islamic education.
•Government-led efforts at Islamization
have led to the establishment of more
Islamic schools and tertiary institutions.
44
Revival of Islamic Education
•Since the 1970s, there has been a revival
of interest in Islamic education.
•Government-led efforts at Islamization
have led to the establishment of more
Islamic schools and tertiary institutions.
45

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COLONIAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE RESHAPING OF

ISLAM, THE MUSLIM AND ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN

CHRISTINE LACE L. AMARELA

Clifford Geertz and William

Geertz, an American cultural

•Geertz introduced the concept of "Islam

•Roff responded to Geertz's culturalist perspective

•Islam encountered the rich and vibrant

•European colonialism brought

•Islam and other religions were

•The process of "de-embedment" and

•Islam in the Malay world underwent multiple

•It is essential for scholars to recognize and

•The concept of "Islam embedded" sheds light

•Islam had a significant impact on pre-

•Understanding these elements is crucial for

•Islam in the Malay world played a

•Islamic mysticism, particularly tasawwuf,

•Figures like Al-Attas argued that Islam

•Islam brought intellectual and rational

•Works like Al-Raniri's "Sirat al-

•Shariah law played a central role in

•The application of Shariah, seen in

•Despite Islam's dominance in

•Conflicts between Shariah and pre-

•Colonialism involved not just physical

•Indigenous thought systems were

•British colonialism replaced indigenous

•British colonialism in Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaya,

•Through colonial influence, KERAJAAN underwent

•This reconfiguration marginalized the indigenous Islamic

•British colonial rule introduced a clear separation between

•The Pangkor Treaty (1874) formalized this separation,

•The British aimed to limit Islamic law to religious affairs,

•British colonialism imposed a 'secular modern' governance

•This included bureaucratic changes, judicial reforms, and

•British policies favored English medium schools and secular

1. Establishment of British Residency and Control: British intervention began indirectly in

3. Transformation of Religious Administration: British reforms established institutions like

4. Impact on Education: British policies reshaped educational priorities, favoring English

In education, Islamic instruction was sidelined

Transformation of Islamic Education under British

Decline of Traditional Islamic Schooling Methods:

•Before British intervention, Islamic education played a

Promotion of English Medium Schools and Secular

Emphasis on Subordinate Government

The curriculum and ethos of MCKK were

Dichotomy between Religious and Secular Education:

•Muslims in Malaysia responded to colonialism through two major forms: anti-British

•The Gerakan Pembaharuan (Reform Movement) in

•Reformists like Sayyid Shaikh al-Hadi and Shaikh Tahir

•Islamic ideology was utilized in nationalist movements,

•Malay society witnessed heated debates between reformists

•Muslim reformists aimed to elevate Malay society through

•The Parti Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM) and UMNO emerged

•UMNO formed alliances with other ethnic

parties, controlling the political landscape and

advocating for a secular state despite

recognizing Islam as the country's religion.

•Malay-Muslim opposition during colonialism

was diverse, reflecting differing theological,

political, and social perspectives within the

•The Malaysian Constitution plays a pivotal role in shaping