Advanced Computer

Architecture

By
Muhammad Assad
Function
All computer functions are
comprised of four basic
operations:
 Data processing
 Data storage
 Data movement
 Control
Data Processing
 The
basic function of any
computer is to process data
 Describesarithmetic and logical
operations performed on data
 Although end result may be
complex, there are few distinct
types of data processing
Data Storage
 Long term
 Logging
 Data records
 Short term
 temp variables – e.g., buffer
containing the last key pressed
 program control data – e.g., loop
variables
Data Movement
 Computer
must be able to
communicate with outside world
 Datamust be “accessible” to
devices outside computer
 Two types:
 Peripheral
 Data communications
Data movement to a
peripheral
 Data must be passed between
computer and I/O devices connected
to computer
 Typically to simple devices
 Examples
 monitors and keyboards
 data acquisition
 peripheral control
Data Movement to remote
devices (data
communications)

 Datacommunications is data
movement over a longer range
 Typically
to smart devices or other
computers
Control
 Something needs to monitor
operation and maintain control of
data processing, data storage, and
data movement.
 Automated control of computer’s
resources
Functional
view
Operations:
Data movement
Operations:
Storage
Operations:
Processing
from/to storage
Operations:
Processing from
storage to I/O
Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Logic Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Logic
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
A Brief History of Computers

 The First Generation:Vacuum Tubes

 The Second Generation:Transistors

 The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

 Later Generations
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Computer)
Need:
 Army’s Ballistic Research Lab developed range and
trajectory tables for new weapons
 Used >200 people with desktop calculators to create
trajectory tables for weapons
 ENIAC (continued)
 Mauchly (EE professor) and Eckert (grad student) at University of
Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering
 Proposed general purpose computer
 Started 1943
 Finished 1946
 1 year to design
 18 months to build
 Cost $500,000
 Too late for war effort
ENIAC (continued)

General purpose nature proven by using ENIAC to perform

calculations for:
 hydrogen bomb feasibility
 weather prediction
 cosmic-ray studies
 thermal ignition
 random-number studies
 wind-tunnel design
ENIAC (continued)

 Programmed manually by 6,000 switches

(programming took weeks)
 Used 17,468 vacuum tubes (relays had
been used up to this point)
 Other components included 70,000
resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays,
and 5 million soldered joints
 30 tons, 1800 square feet of floor space
 Consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical
power
ENIAC (continued)

 Twenty 10 digit accumulators

 Decimal (base-10) machine, each digit represented by
one of ten tubes “ON”
 5,000 additions per second (1,000 times faster then any
other device at that time)
 357 multiplications per second
 38 divisions per second
ENIAC I/O

 Constants were loaded using switches

 Numbers changed during the course of computation
were entered using punch cards or punch tape
 The basic memory device was a flip-flip (latch) that had
a neon lamp to represent its state
von Neumann/Turing
Stored Program Computer
 ALU operates on binary data
 Main memory stores both instructions and data – must
be considerable in order to carry out long, complicated
sequences of operations
 Control unit interprets instructions from memory and
causes them to be executed
 Input and output equipment operated by control unit
Princeton Institute for
Advanced Studies (IAS)
 First implementation of von Neumann stored program
computer
 Completed 1952
Structure of IAS machine
IAS Memory
1000 x 40 bit words of either number or instruction

 Signed magnitude binary number

 1 sign bit
 39 bits for magnitude
 2 x 20 bit instructions
 Left and right instructions (left executed first)
 8-bit opcode
 12 bit address
IAS Registers
 Set of registers (storage in CPU)
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Instruction Register (IR)
 Instruction Buffer Register (IBR)
 Program Counter (PC)
 Accumulator (AC)
 Multiplier Quotient (MQ)
Structure of
IAS

Figure 2.3, p. 22
IAS
execution
of
instruction

Figure 2.4, p. 23
Transistors

 Replaced vacuum tubes

 Smaller
 Cheaper
 Less heat dissipation
 Solid State device
 Made from Silicon (Sand)
 Invented 1947 at Bell Labs by William Shockley et al.
Integrated circuit
The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete
component. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, electronic
equipment was composed largely of discrete components—
transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on. Discrete
components were manufactured separately, packaged in their
own containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-
like circuit boards, which were then installed in computers,
oscilloscopes, and other electronic equipment.Whenever an
electronic device called for a transistor, a little tube of metal
containing a pinhead-sized piece of silicon had to be soldered
to a circuit board. The entire manufacturing process, from
transistor to circuit board, was expensive and cumbersome.
Continue…..

These facts of life were beginning to create problems in

the computer industry.
Early second-generation computers contained about 10,000
transistors.
This figure grew to the hundreds of thousands, making the
manufacture of newer, more powerful machines
increasingly difficult.
In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized
electronics and started the era of microelectronics: the
invention of the integrated circuit.
Continue….

MICROELECTRONICS Microelectronics means, literally,

“small electronics.”
Since the beginnings of digital electronics and the computer
industry, there has been a persistent and consistent trend
toward the reduction in size of digital electronic circuits.
The integrated circuit exploits the fact that such
components as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be
fabricated from a semiconductor such as silicon. It is merely
an extension of the solid-state art to fabricate an entire
circuit in a tiny piece of silicon rather than assemble
discrete components made from separate pieces of silicon
into the same circuit.
 Moore’s Law

 Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel

 He observed (based on experience) that number of
transistors on a chip doubled every year
 Since 1970’s growth has slowed a little
 Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
 Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
 Higher packing density means shorter electrical
paths, giving higher performance
 Smaller size gives increased flexibility/portability
 Reduced power and cooling requirements
 Fewer system interconnections increases reliability
Growth in CPU Transistor Count
Later Generations

Beyond the third generation there is less general

agreement on defining generations of computers.
There have been a number of later generations,
based on advances in integrated circuit technology. With
the introduction of largescale integration (LSI), more than
1000 components can be placed on a single integrated
circuit chip. Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) achieved
more than 10,000 components per chip, while current
ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) chips can contain more
than one million components.
Continue…..

SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
The first application of integrated circuit technology to
computers was construction of the processor (the control
unit and the arithmetic and logic unit) out of integrated
circuit chips. But it was also found that this same
technology could be used to construct memories.
Since 1970, semiconductor memory has been through 13
generations: 1K, 4K, 16K, 64K, 256K, 1M, 4M, 16M, 64M,
256M, 1G, 4G, and, as of this writing, 16 Gbits on a single
chip (1K 210, 1M 220, 1G 230). Each generation has
provided four times the storage density of the previous
generation, accompanied by declining cost per bit and
declining access time.
Continue…..
MICROPROCESSORS Just as the density of elements on memory
chips has continued to rise, so has the density of elements on
processor chips. As time went on, more and more elements
were placed on each chip, so that fewer and fewer chips were
needed to construct a single computer processor.
A breakthrough was achieved in 1971, when Intel developed
its 4004.The 4004 was the first chip to contain all of the
components of a CPU on a single chip:The microprocessor was
born.
The 4004 can add two 4-bit numbers and can multiply only by
repeated addition. By today’s standards, the 4004 is
hopelessly primitive, but it marked the beginning of a
continuing evolution of microprocessor capability and power.
continue

The next major step in the evolution of the microprocessor

was the introduction in 1972 of the Intel 8008.This was the
first 8-bit microprocessor and was almost twice as complex
as the 4004.
Continue…