WAXES IN DENTISTRY

Dr Veena Gowri
 Contents
 Introduction
 Historical background
 Definition
 Classification
 Properties of different types of waxes
 Uses of waxes
 Techniques in the use of waxes
 Review of literature
 Present trends
 Summary
 Conclusion
 References
Introduction
 Historical Background..
 Oldest wax used – beeswax
 Approximately 3000 B.C - Egyptians for mummification

 Onset of 19th century, beginning of classical chemistry –

waxes were investigated more completely

 Natural waxes ……synthetic waxes

 First liquid paraffins were produced according to Fischer-

Trop’s procedure in 1935
 History of Waxes in Dentistry

 Wax models in prosthetic work – first mentioned by

M G Purmann in 1700.

 Models were carved in wax first and then reproduced in ivory

or bone

 More than 200yrs ago, beeswax – first used to make

impressions…
 History..
 1857 – Charles Stent - first used combination of waxes to see
which one hardened at mouth temperature

 1907 – William H Taggart - ‘Lost Wax Technique’

 Ever since, waxes have been and continue to be used in the

casting of metal frameworks..
 Definition

 A dental wax is a low molecular weight ester of fatty acid

derived from natural and synthetic components such as
petroleum derivatives that soften to a plastic state at a
relatively low temperature.
- Anusavice
 Classification of Waxes

• Natural waxes
Based on source • Synthetic waxes

• Pattern waxes
Based on use &
• Processing waxes
application • Impression waxes
 Based on Source
 Natural :  Synthetic :
mineral : paraffin polyethylene wax
microcrystalline polyoxyethylene glycol wax
ceresin
montan
plant : carnauba
candelilla
insect : beeswax
animal : spermaceti wax
 Based on Use and Application

Pattern waxes Processing waxes Impression waxes

Inlay wax Boxing wax Bite registration or
Casting wax Utility wax corrective wax

Base plate wax Sticky wax

Carding wax
Blockout wax
 Mineral Waxes
Paraffin wax :

 Derived from high boiling fractions of petroleum

 Composed of complex mixture of hydrocarbons of methane
series
 Wide melting or softening range
 Melting range – 40 – 710 C , which increases with increasing
molecular weight
 Volumetric contraction – 11 to 15 %
 Flow is 50% at 31.50 C
 Flakes, when trimmed
 Does not have a glossy surface
Microcrystalline waxes :
 Obtained from heavier oil fractions
 Crystal structure is more branched with longer carbon chains
 Higher melting range 60- 910 C
 Tougher and more flexible than paraffin
 Less volumetric shrinkage than paraffin

Ceresin:
 Replaces part of paraffin waxes to modify toughness and
carving characteristics
 Higher melting range 130 – 1600F
 Plant Waxes

Carnauba wax:
 Obtained from leaves of palm copernica cerifera
 It is quite hard, melting range 84-910C
 Combined with paraffin to-
Decrease flow at mouth temp
increase the hardness
 Contributes to glossiness of the wax surface, even more than
dammar resin.

(Addition of 10 % carnauba wax to paraffin wax with a melting

range of 200C will increase the melting range to 460C.)
Candelilla wax :

 Derived from candelilla plant which grows in hot, dry places

 Qualities similar to carnauba wax

 Added to paraffin to partially or entirely replace carnauba

wax.

 Its melting point is lower, and it is not as hard as carnauba

wax.
 Insect Wax
Beeswax :

 Secreted by honey bees

 Varies in colour from yellow to black

 Complex mixture of esters, consisting mainly of myricyl palmitate,

plus saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons and high molecular
weight organic acids.

 Melting range 63-700C

 Brittle at room temp, becomes plastic at body temp

 Used to modify the properties of paraffin wax

(also the main component of sticky wax)
 Animal Wax

Spermaceti wax :
 Obtained from the head of the sperm whale
 Liquid at room temperature
 Synthetic Waxes

 Primarily derived from polymerising ethylene

 They have a greater hardness for a given melting point
compared to natural waxes.
 Ex. Polyethelene wax
polyoxyethelene glycol wax
Pattern Waxes
 Inlay Casting Wax

 Inlay wax is a specialized dental wax that can be applied to dies

to form direct or indirect patterns for the lost wax technique
used for casting metal or hot pressing of ceramics.
 Deep blue, green or purple color.
 Composition
Paraffin - 60%

Carnauba - 25%

Beeswax - 5%

Ceresin - 10%

Natural resins (gum dammar) -less than 1%

Organic fillers- added to avoid excessive shrinkage, expansion due
to temperature change
Microcrystalline wax- In minute amount.

Candelilla

Coloring agents
 • Main ingredient
Paraffin wax • Likely to flake when trimmed
• Doesn’t have smooth, glossy surface

• Decreases flow at mouth temperature

Carnauba wax • Contributes to glossiness
• Increases melting range

• Increases melting range

Ceresin • Modifies toughness and carving
characteristics
 • Brittle at room temperature, plastic at
Beeswax body temperature
• Modifies properties of paraffin wax

• Improves smoothness, renders it more

resistant to cracking
Natural resin
• Increases toughness
• Enhances luster

• Tougher and more flexible than

Microcrystalline wax
paraffin
 • May be added or may replace carnauba
wax
Candelilla wax
• Melting range lower and not as hard as
carnauba

• Added to decrease the shrinkage

Organic fillers
which occurs during cooling of wax
 In modern inlay waxes, carnauba wax is often replaced in part
with certain synthetic waxes that are compatible with paraffin
wax

 One is a complex nitrogen derivative of higher fatty acids.

 The other is composed of esters of acids derived from montan

wax, a petroleum derivative

 Control of properties of inlay wax is governed by combination

of factors-
-Amount of carnauba wax used.
-The melting range of hydrocarbon wax.
-Presence of resin.
 Desirable Properties of Inlay Casting Wax

 When softened the wax should be uniform.

 The color should be such that it contrasts with the die

material or prepared tooth.

 There should be no flakiness or similar surface roughening

when the wax is bent and molded after softening

 During carving, wax should not pull away with carving

instrument or should not chip as it is carved.

 Desirable properties..
 Wax should burn out , forming carbon which is later
eliminated by oxidation to volatile gases.

ANSI/ADA specification No 4 requires that the molten wax

when vaporized at 5000C (9320F) , leave no solid residue in
excess of 0.10% of the original weight of specimen.

 The wax pattern should be completely rigid and dimensionally

stable at all times until it is eliminated
Properties of Inlay Casting Waxes

FLOW
 The flow of a wax is a measure of its potential to deform
under a small static load, even that associated with its own
mass.
 Inlay waxes do not solidify with a space lattice, as does a
metal.

 Likely to consist amorphous and crystalline structural regions…

 ANSI/ADA Specification No 4 provides certain requirements
for flow properties of waxes at specific temperatures:
Type I is medium wax,
used for direct pattern in the mouth, where lower flow
values at 370C tend to minimize any distortion of the
pattern on its removal.
Type II is a soft wax used in indirect technique
 Each type of wax exhibits a flow curve as a function of
temperature. they also show a sharp transition point at which
the wax loses its plasticity.
 Soft wax- lower temperature
 Hard wax- relatively higher temperature
 Flow at different temp when type I and II waxes are subjected
to 19.6 N load for 10 min according to the requirement for
ANSI/ADA sp. No.4 (JADA 1984)

Type of wax T=300C T=370C T=400C T=400C T=450 T=450C

(max) (max) (min) (max) (min) (max)

I --- 1.0 --- 20 70 90

II 1.0 --- 50 --- 70 90

 Thermal Properties
 Thermal conductivity of waxes is low and time is required both
to heat them uniformly and to cool them to room temperature.

Coefficient of thermal expansion :

 Expand as much as 0.7% with an increase in temperature of

200 C and contract as much as 0.35% when cooled from 370 C
to 250 C.

 Average coefficient of thermal expansion is 350 X 10-6 /0 C

 Inlay waxes thermally expand and contract more per degree of
temp change than any other dental material.

 This is one of the inherent disadvantages of waxes when they

are used in the direct technique.

 This property is not significant when wax is used in indirect

technique because the pattern is not subjected to a change
from mouth to room temperature, provided no marked
variations in temperature occurs after the removal of pattern
from die.
 The maximum linear thermal expansion allowed between 25 and
300C is 0.20%, between 25 and 370C - 0.60% is allowed.
 Wax Distortion

 Results from thermal changes and relaxation of stresses…

Freshly made wax pattern

Changes shape and size

Contracts on cooling , until it attains state of equilibrium

then the pattern reaches dimensional stability
 Elastic Memory
 Waxes, tend to return to their original shape after manipulation.
This property is known as elastic memory.

 Illustrates the nature of wax to return to its normal stress-free

state.
 Elastic memory is illustrated during measurement of thermal
expansion of wax held under pressure during cooling

 Castings made from patterns with molten wax cooled under

pressure
A- Pattern invested immediately
B- Pattern stored for 2 hr
C- Pattern stored for 12 hr

 Casting best fits when the pattern is invested immediately

after removal
 One can minimize the incorporation of residual stress by
softening a wax uniformly by heating at 500C for at least
15 min before use , also by using warmed carving instruments
and a warmed die, by adding wax to the die in small amounts.

 Greater warpage results at higher storage temp.

 Inlay wax pattern if allowed to stand longer than 30 min,

should be kept in a refrigerator , the distortion will be less as
compared to room temp.

 During spruing distortion can be reduced by use of solid wax

sprue or hollow metal sprue filled with sticky wax. If the
pattern was stored margins should be re-adapted.
 Some commercial inlay waxes..
 DENTARUM (Germany) Crown and Bridge Inlay Wax

In ropes In bulk

Melting point 720C

Also present in ivory color melting point 730C
 Vario wax set

Dark blue-hard, for crowns bridges and inlays. Add on and Dip use
melting point 690C

Light blue-soft, for crowns bridges and inlays,add on and dip use
melting point 720C

Lilac-stress free, for copings and cervical margins , melting point 79 0C

Red- adhesive, connecting and adhesive wax, melting point 70 0C

 Cervical wax- for the cervical area, no shrinkage , a very
accurate fit will be obtained, melting point 740C

 Dipping waxes are kept molten for constant usage .

 Wax pots kept at different temp can be used.

Wax heating unit

Temp range 30-1100C
 Instruments and Equipment

Modeling instrument set, wax knife

Thomas modeling instrument No 1
Tweezer, wax pencil, rubber adapter
Tooth brush

An electric wax knife with temp

Regulator and transformer, can be
Adjusted to a max of 2500C
 Manipulation of Inlay Wax

 Dry heat is preferred to the use of water bath (54-600C)

For type I (direct technique):

 It is softened over a flame until it becomes shiny.

 It is kneaded, shaped and pressed in the prepared cavity.
 Pressure is applied by finger or pt biting on it.
 It is cooled gradually, before taking out.
For fabricating indirect pattern (type II):
 Die should be lubricated, preferably with a lubricant,
containing a wetting agent.
 Excess must be avoided .
 Molten wax is added in layers with a spatula or waxing
instrument or may be painted on with a brush.
 Wax is then carved to proper contour.
 A silk or fine cloth may be used, for final polishing.
 Lost wax technique: a wax pattern is prepared, embedded in a
casting investment, burned out to produce a mold cavity into
which a molten metal flows.
 Casting Wax

 The pattern for metallic framework of RPD and other similar

structures is fabricated from casting waxes.

 Available in the form of sheets (.3 to .6mm),

ready made shapes and
in bulk

 Ready made shapes are supplied in round, half round and pear
shaped rods & wires
 Composition
 Exact composition is not specified but they include ingredients
similar to inlay waxes with various combination and proportions
of
-Paraffin

-Ceresin
-Beeswax

-Resins and other waxes being used

 There is no ADA specification for these waxes but Federal
Specification no. U-W-140 includes values for softening
temperatures, amount of flow, and general working qualities.
 Properties of Casting Waxes
 A federal specification has been formulated
No U-W 140(march 1948)

Type of wax flow Breaking point working properties

Casting wax 350C-max,10% no fracture at Pliable and readily

Class-A-28 gauge 380C-min,60 % 23 0C +/- 10 adaptable at 40 to 450C

pink copy accurately surface

Class-B-30 gauge against which it is pressed

green
shall not be brittle on cooling
Class-C-ready made shape
blue vaporize at 5000C,leaving no film
other than carbon
 These waxes possess certain degree of tackiness

 This helps to maintain their position on the cast and on each

other during assembly of pattern.

 Casting wax sheets are used to establish min thickness in

certain areas of partial denture framework such as palatal and
lingual bar and to produce desired contour of lingual bar.

 Requirement for ductility is high, federal specification

requires that it be bent double upon itself without # at a temp
of 230C, and that they be pliable and readily adaptable at 400C

 Like inlay wax they must vaporize at 5000C with no residue

other than carbon.
 Commercially Available Casting
Waxes
DENTAURUM (Germany) Model Casting, Wax Preforms

Premolar clasps, molar clasps, ring clasp

Ring clasp, lingual bars, ridge retention

Grids ,coarse grids, fine grids.
 Wax profiles- available as 0.6-5.0 mm
diameter, semi-circular profiles maxillary and
mandibular Profiles, arches

finishing strip, sprue former strip

Casting wax, Veined, Grained For casting procedure available in
different thickness , 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45. 0.5, 0.6 mm.

Fine veined, medium veined, coarse veined

Coarse grained
Connecting wax, dark green- Special wax for rapid build up of
connections between the base and the clasps and retainers, melting point
740C

Thermo wax, pink

Block-Out wax for undercuts,
melting point 960C
 Baseplate Wax
 Baseplate wax derives its name from its use on the denture
base to establish vertical dimension, plane of occlusion
 Available in pink colour normally which provides esthetic
quality for initial stage of denture construction

Composition
May contain 70% to 80% paraffin based waxes
 Ceresin – 80%
 Beeswax- 12%
 Carnauba- 2.5%
 Natural or synthetic resins- 3%
 Microcrystalline waxes- 2.5%
 Properties of Baseplate Wax

 Three types of waxes are included in ADA Specification no. 24

for baseplate wax:
-type I : soft wax for building contours and veneers
-type II: medium wax for patterns to be tried in the mouth in
temperate climate
-type III: hard wax for patterns to be tried in the mouth in
tropical climate
 The specification limits the expansion of the wax to 0.8%
between 25 and 400 C.
 Flow requirements for baseplate wax given in the specification
is as follows:
Review of Literature
 In year 1975, the revision of ADA sp no 4 for dental inlay
casting wax was approved by the Council on Dental Materials
and Devices of the American Dental Association.

Major differences from the previous specifications were

1) Inclusion of synthetic waxes

2) Change to three types and classes, of inlay waxes
3) Change in flow requirement.

Revision became effective Jan 1 1976

Scope and classification
1.1 Scope- for inlay casting wax, consists essentially of natural and synthetic
waxes , resins and hydrocarbons of paraffin series

1.2 –Types and Classes

Type-A Hard
Class1-Sticks
Class2-cones
Class3-other shapes

Type-B Medium
Class1-sticks
Class2-cones
Class3-other shapes

Type-C soft
Class1-sticks
Class2-cones
Class3-other shapes
 3.7 Outlines for flow requirement

FLOW % WAX TEMP ERATURE 0C

Min max Type A Type B Type C
--- 1 43 37 34
1 15 46 40 37
50 85 49 43 40
70 90 52 46 43

 Revision was done again in 1983 which was reaffirmed in 2003,

it was decided to follow the specifications in second revision,
including flow requirements which are presently being
followed.
 Eleini Kotsiomiti and Athanasios.K
In the year 1994 conducted a study to see the behavior of crown
pattern waxes on heating and cooling, Flow and Linear thermal
expansion were determined and compared with those reported
by previous investigators.
They concluded,
1) Increase in flow of the pattern waxes caused by in increase in
temp occurs in the range of 37-470C for the majority of the
material tested.
2) Most of the material flow by 61% to 82% at 470C to
520C .This % seems to be adequate for easy handling. The
temp increase provokes a linear expansion of more than 1% for
most pattern waxes.
3) Rate of expansion varies during an increase in temp, the
changes that occur at transition points are related to
structural changes in the material.
4) Similarity of arrest points in the material tested is indicative
of similar compositions and proportions of the major
constituents. J Prosthet Dent 1994 May 71: 511-6
 A study was conducted by E. Kotsiomitl & J . F . McAbe

 The flow and strength properties of dental waxes were

examined following excessive and repeated heatings of the
materials.
 Property variations were related to compositional changes,
which were investigated by infrared spectroscopy and thermal
analysis.
 Exposure of dental waxes to temperatures higher than 200^C,
particularly if it is repeated, may affect the composition and
properties, resulting in inferior materials.

Journal of Oral Rehabilitation 1995 22; 135-143

 Michio Ito et al in 1996 conducted a study to evaluate the
relationship between flow characteristic, bonding strength and
softening temp of paraffin and dental inlay waxes to casting
shrinkage when patterns were invested with a phosphate bonded
investment.
They concluded
1) Casting shrinkage decreased when flow of wax pattern increased .
2) The flow of wax pattern increased as the exothermic reaction
increased

3) A larger casting ring is suggested for casting when a relatively

thick wax pattern or an inlay wax that has a high strength,
softening temp and low flow % is used.

4) Some industrial waxes demonstrated potential for dental casting

but research is needed.

J Prosthet Dent 1996 Feb 75: 211-6

 D.R.Davis in 1997 conducted a study to determine whether
the magnitude and characteristics of distortion could be
modified by limiting the vertical setting expansion.

Wax patterns were formed on standard dies of MOD inlays

and complete crowns, Invested in conventional open ring and
modified closed ring using same investment and technique.
After casting thickness of the cement film was measured
at specific sites. The complete crown group exhibited less
distortion than MOD inlay group.

J Prosthet Dent 1997 Aug 58(1):229-32

 Randa Diwan et al in 1997 conducted a study to see
inaccuracies of pattern waxes in fixed and removable partial
denture castings
they conclude that wax is not the only potential cause
of inaccuracies other factors are:-

1) Clinical and technical errors caused by dentist and dental

technician

2) Lab errors – improper manipulation of other dental materials eg

duplicating procedure of master cast, refractory investment

3) Liquid-powder ratio for both stone and investment mixes

4) Spruing ,improper burnout, overheating or underheating the

metal, erratic finishing and polishing.

J Prosthet Dent 1997 May 77:553-5

 Alternative to Pattern Waxes

 Pattern waxes are being replaced to some extent by

preformed plastic patterns. They are completely combustible.

Preformed plastic pattern in different Plastic retentions

Shapes and sizes
Pattern resins
 Available in both
Autopolymerizing acrylic resin (Duralay)
Light curing resins (Modilux)

 Pattern resins are characterized by higher strength and

resistance to flow than waxes, good dimensional stability and
burn out without residue.

 Full crown patterns fabricated from pattern resins and inlay

waxes have shown similar marginal discrepancies.

 A pattern is fabricated by applying the resin in 3-5 mm layers

and curing in a light chamber or with a hand held light curing
unit

 Resin is completely eliminated from the mold before casting by

heating at 6900C for 45 min.
Processing waxes
 Processing waxes include the boxing, sticky, carding and utility
waxes.
Boxing wax :
 It is used to form a wax box around an impression of an arch
into which ..

 It doesn’t have an ADA Specification, but has a Federal

Specification number U-W-138 which stipulates that boxing
wax should be pliable at 210 C and retain its shape at 350 C.
Sticky wax:
 It is used on dental stones ,plaster and to assemble metallic or
resin pieces in a fixed temporary position.
 Composition :
yellow beeswax
high or low amounts of rosin
gum dammar

Properties :
 There is no ADA Specification for sticky wax, but has Federal
Specification No. U-W- 00149a which includes values for flow,
residue on burn out and shrinkage on cooling
 Flow: at 300 C - maximum flow of 5%
at 430 C – minimum flow of 90%
 Maximum allowable shrinkage is 0.5% between 430 C and 280 C
 Brittle at room temperature
Utility wax
 It is an easily workable, adhesive wax for numerous
applications

Composition :
Beeswax, petroleum and other soft waxes

 Uses: -to contour the trays for hydrocolloid impressions

-to stabilize a bridge pontic on the lingual side when labial
plaster is being poured

 The Federal Specification for utility waxesU-W-156 requires

the flow to be not less than 65% and not more than 80% at
37.50 C
 Commercial Names of Some
Processing Waxes are:
 Kerr boxing wax, Kerr company
 Pliable sticky wax, Whipmix Corp.
 Model cement sticky wax, Dentsply
 Kerr utility wax sheets, sticks
Impression Waxes
 Impression waxes, though rarely used to record complete
impressions, they can be effectively used to correct small
imperfections in other impressions. They are thermoplastic
materials, which flow readily at mouth temperature and are
relatively soft even at room temperature.

 Impression waxes are classified as:

1) Corrective impression wax
2) Bite registration wax.
 Properties of Impression Waxes
 They neither have ADA nor Federal Specifications, but flow of
several waxes at 370 C ranges from 2.5 to 22% indicating that
these waxes are susceptible to distortion upon removal from
mouth.

 Thermal expansion
-Impression waxes expand when subjected to a rise in
temperature and contract as the temperature decreased.
-Coefficient of linear thermal expansion is 350-700 x10-6/ °C.
 
Advantages
 Impression wax can be used in thin layers to record the
impression surface of the ridge accurately.
 It is relatively easy to manipulate.
 It does not need advanced equipments.
 
Disadvantages
 Distortion of the impression wax can occur when the records
are stored due to the release of stresses.
 It is technique sensitive.
 It can be used only to record edentulous surfaces,
 Applications

 Corrective impression wax is used as wax veneer over an original

impression to contact and register the details of soft tissues
 These waxes can also be used to produce a muco-
compressive impression of the edentulous saddles for a
lower, free-end saddle partial denture.
 Impression wax can be applied with a brush in small quantities
to 'fill' in areas of impression in which insufficient material
 Wax can be used as inter occlusal recording material
 Wax can be used to make functional wax patterns.
 Bite Registration Wax
 It is used to articulate accurately certain models of opposing
quadrants.

 Bite registrations are made from 28 gauge casting wax sheets

 Composition :
-beeswax, or hydrocarbon waxes such as paraffin of ceresin
-some bite registration waxes also contain aluminum or copper
particles
 Corrective Impression Wax

 It is used as a wax veneer over an original impression to

contact and register the detail of the soft tissues
 Formulated from hydrocarbon waxes such as paraffin and
ceresin and also metallic particles
 Flow of these waxes at 370 C is 100%, though they are
subjected to distortion on removal from mouth
 Available impression waxes :

 IOWA Wax (white) developed by Dr. Earl S. Smith.

 Korecta Wax No. 4(orange) developed by Dr. O.C. Applegate.
 H-L physiologic paste (yellow-white) developed by
Dr. C.S. Harkins
 Aluwax
 Waxes – ‘The New Trends’
 Primotec’s Metacon light cured wax system is based on new
concept of converting wax into acrylic.
 This acrylic is strong enough not to distort and break, but
flexible enough to be lifted from the cast.
 Flexibility and memory of the material enables precision
castings
 Once the material is cured, it can be trimmed before investing
with a carbide bur
 Material is handled just like wax but during hardening it is
cured with Metalight QX1 curing light using a special “suck-
down” device.
 The material completely burns out, and the system eliminates
the need for refractories and duplication
 Traditional ‘waxing procedures’
..History Already?
 M Wu et al describe a method of making titanium dental
crowns by means of integrating laser measuring, numerical
simulation and rapid prototype (RP) manufacture of wax
patterns for the investment casting process.
 By using the integrated scanning, simulation, RP pattern and
casting procedure, cast crowns, free of porosity, with
excellent functional contour and a smooth surface finish, were
obtained from the first casting trial.
 Significance. The coupling of laser digitizing and RP indicates a
potential to replace the traditional ‘impression taking and
waxing’ procedure in dental laboratory, with the quality of the
cast titanium prostheses also being improved by using the
numerically optimized runner and gating system design.

Dental Materials 17(2) March 2001 ; 102-108

 Summary and Conclusion

 Waxes have been popular and useful dental material.

 Nevertheless, use of dental waxes is associated with control
of certain characteristics that affect their applicability, such
as
-Effect of heating on flow
-Thermal expansion
-Distortion
Considerations to the above properties of waxes lead to
accurate wax patterns, in turn guaranteeing a successful
prosthesis.
 References

 Kenneth J. Anusavice ; Phillips Science of dental

material .Eleventh edition, Elsevier,2004.
 Jack L. Ferracane ; Materials in Dentistry principles and
application. Second edition ,Lippincot Williams, 1995.
 William J. O’Brien; Dental materials and their selection. Third
edition, quintessence Publishing co. 2002.
 Dentist’s desk Reference : Materials, Instruments and
Equipments , 2nd edition
 Robert C. Craig John M. Powers, John C.Wataha ;Dental materials
properties and manipulation,. Eight edition,2004.

 Revised ADA specification No 4 for dental casting wax,JADA Vol

90 Feb 1975

 Davis.D.R, 1987, “Limiting wax pattern distortion caused by

setting expansion”.JPD Aug 58(1):229-32

 M Wu et al Application of laser measuring, numerical simulation

and rapid prototyping to titanium dental castings Dental
Materials Volume 17, Issue 2, March 2001, Pages 102-108
 Kotsiomiti E. Kaloyannides A,1994, “Crown pattern waxes: A
study of their behavior on heating and cooling “JPD May 71:
511-6

 Ito M et al,1996, “Effect of selected physical properties of

waxes on investments and casting shrinkage”JPD Feb 75: 211-6

 Diwan R et al,1997, “pattern waxes and inaccuracies in fixed

and removable partial denture castings” JPD May 77:553-5
 Internet sources
Thank you