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INTRODUCTION
Huseyin Bilgekul
Eeng360 Communication Systems I
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Eastern Mediterranean University Eeng360 1
Frequency Bands
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Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves
The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves
used in wireless channels are highly dependent on the
frequency.
Based on carrier frequency EM wave propagations can be
classified as:
• GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
• SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
• Line of Sight (LOS) PROPAGATION
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Ionized Regions Above Earth.
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GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
Dominant mode of propagation for frequencies below 2 MHz.
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SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
Dominant mode of propagation for EM waves in the
frequency range of 2 MHz to 30 MHz.
Long coverage is obtained by reflection of wave at the
ionosphere and at the Earth’s boundary.
This mode is used in HF band International Broadcasting
(Shortwave Radio).
Sky-wave propagation is caused primarily by reflection
from the F layer (90 to 250 miles in altitude).
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SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
The refraction index of the ionosphere can be approximated as
Where,
n -- Refractive index,
N -- Free electron density (number of electrons/m3) ( ~ 1010/m3)
f -- Frequency of the wave (Hz).
nr Sin φr = ni Sin φi
Waves will be bent back to earth. Ionosphere acts as a reflector. Transmitting
station will have coverage areas along the surface of earth.
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LINE-OF SIGHT (LOS) PROPAGATION
Dominant mode of propagation for EM waves above 30 MHz.
Since the frequency is high,
The disadvantage of LOS is that the signal path has to be above the horizon and
the receiver antennas need to be placed on tall towers so that they can see
each other.
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LOS Calculations
Let’s assume
d = Distance to the horizon;
h = Antenna height...
r = Effective radius of earth Where h << r
d 2 r 2 ( r h) 2 or d 2 2rh h 2
d 2rh
• Messages that are less likely to occur (smaller value for Pj) provide
more information (large value of Ij).
• The information measure depends on only the likelihood of sending
the message and does not depend on possible interpretation of the
content.
• For units of bits, the base 2 logarithm is used;
• if natural logarithm is used, the units are “nats”;
• if the base 10 logarithm is used, the units are “hartley”.
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Measuring Information
Definition: Average Information (H)
The average information measure of a digital source is,
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Measuring Information-Example1.1
Answer:
Possible combinations of 12 digits ( # of possible messages) = 4 12
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Channel Capacity & Ideal Comm. Systems
For digital communication systems, the “Optimum System” may defined as
the system that minimize the probability of bit error at the system output subject
to constraints on the energy and channel bandwidth.
Question:
Is it possible to design a system with infinite signal-to-noise ratio at the output
when noise is introduced by the channel?
Answer: No!
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Problems
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Problems
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