Modeling & Simulation of

Dynamic Systems (EE-971)

Lecture-3
Modelling Examples

Dr. Imtiaz Hussain

Assistant Professor (Control Systems),
Department of Electronic and Power Engineering
PNEC-NUST, Karachi, Pakistan
email: imtiaz.hussain@pnec.nust.edu.pk

Spring 2023

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 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
• Automatic cruise control  A throttle is the
mechanism by which the
• The purpose of the cruise control system is to maintain
flow ofaa constant
fluid is vehicle
speed despite external disturbances, such as changes inmanaged
wind or road grade.
by  obstruction.

• This is accomplished by measuring the vehicle speed, comparing it to the

desired speed, and automatically adjusting the throttle.

• The resistive forces, bv, due to rolling resistance and wind drag act in the
direction opposite to the vehicle's motion.
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 Modeling of Mechanical Systems

• The transfer function of the systems would be

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 Electromechanical Systems
• Electromechanics combines electrical and mechanical
 processes.
• Devices which carry out electrical operations by using
moving parts are known as electromechanical.
– Relays
– Solenoids
– Electric Motors
– Electric Generators
– Switches and e.t.c

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Example-1: Potentiometer

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 Example-1: Potentiometer
• The resistance between the wiper (slider)
and "A" is labeled R1, the resistance
between the wiper and "B" is labeled R2. 

• The total resistance between "A" and "B"

is constant, R1+R2=Rtot. 

• If the potentiometer is turned to the

extreme counterclockwise position such
that the wiper is touching "A" we will call
this θ=0; in this position R1=0 and
R2=Rtot. 

• If the wiper is in the extreme clockwise

position such that it is touching "B" we
will call this θ=θmax;  in this position
R1=Rtot and R2=0.  6
 Example-1: Potentiometer
• R1 and R2 vary linearly with θ between the
two extremes:

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 Example-1: Potentiometer
Figure-1
• Potentiometer can be used to sense
angular position, consider the circuit
of figure-1.  

• Using the voltage divider principle we

can write:

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 Example-2: Loud Speaker
• A voltage is typically applied across the terminals of the
loudspeaker and the "cone" moves in and out causing pressure
waves perceived as sound.

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Example-2: Loud Speaker

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 Example-2: Loud Speaker
• The speaker consists of a fixed magnet
that produces a uniform magnetic field
of strength β.
• The speaker has a cone with mass (M),
that moves in the x direction. 
• The cone is modelled with a spring (K)
to return it to its equilibrium position,
and a friction (B).
• Attached to the cone, and within the
magnetic field is a coil of wire or radius
"a."  The coil consists of "n" turns and it
moves along with the cone.
• The wire has resistance (R) and
inductance (L).
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 Example-2: Loud Speaker
• Mechanical Free body Diagram Electrical Schematic

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 Example-2: Loud Speaker

• Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is given by

• Where ℓ is the total length of wire in the field.

• It is equal to the circumference of the coil (2·π·a) times the number of

turns (n). 

• That is, ℓ=2·π·a·n.

(1)
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 Example-2: Loud Speaker

• Back EMF is given by

(2)

• To find the transfer function X(S)/Ein(s) we have to eliminate current

i.

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 Example-2: Loud Speaker
(1) (2)

• Taking Laplace transform of equations (1) and (2) considering initial

conditions to zero.

(3)

(4)

• Re-arranging equation (3) as

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 Example-2: Loud Speaker
• Put I(s) in equation (4)

• After simplification the transfer function is calculated as

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 Example-3: Capacitor Microphone
• The system consists of a capacitor realized by two plates, one is
fixed and the other is movable but attached to a spring.

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 Example-3: Capacitor Microphone
• Equations of Electrical Subsystem
𝑅

𝑢 𝑖 𝑢𝑐 𝐶(𝑥)

𝑢= 𝑅𝑖+𝑢𝑐
1
where 𝑢𝑐= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Therefore,
1
𝑢= 𝑅𝑖+ ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 18
 Example-3: Capacitor Microphone
• Free body diagram of moveable plate of Mass M

𝐹 (𝑡)

𝐹 𝑘(𝑡) 𝐹 𝑚 (𝑡)

𝐹 ( 𝑡 ) =𝐹 𝑘 ( 𝑡 )+𝐹 𝑚 (𝑡)

𝐹 ( 𝑡 ) =𝑘𝑥+𝑀 𝑥¨
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 Example-3: Capacitor Microphone
• Capacitance equation
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑥

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 Example-6: D.C Drives
• Speed control can be achieved using
DC drives in a number of ways. 

• Variable Voltage can be applied to the

armature terminals of the DC motor . 

• Another method is to vary the flux per

pole of the motor. 

• The first method involve adjusting the

motor’s armature while the latter
method involves adjusting the motor
field.  These methods are referred to as
“armature control” and “field control.”
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 Example-6: D.C Drives
• Motor Characteristics

• For every motor, there is a specific Torque/Speed curve and Power curve.
• Torque is inversely proportional to the speed of the output shaft.
• Motor characteristics are frequently
given as two points on this graph:

• The stall torque,, represents the

point on the graph at which the
torque is maximum, but the shaft is
not rotating.

• The no load speed is the maximum

output speed of the motor.

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 Example-6: D.C Drives
• Motor Characteristics

• Power is defined as the product of torque and angular velocity. 

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Example-6.1: Armature Controlled D.C Motor
Ra La
Input: voltage u B
ia
Output: Angular velocity  u eb T J

Elecrical Subsystem (loop method):
tant
co ns
V f=

Mechanical Subsystem
Example-6.1: Armature Controlled D.C Motor
Ra La
Power Transformation: B
ia
u eb T J
Torque-Current: 
Voltage-Speed:
t
stan
= con
Vf
where Kt: torque constant, Kb: velocity constant For an ideal motor

Combing previous equations results in the following mathematical

model:
Example-6.1: Armature Controlled D.C Motor

Taking Laplace transform of the system’s differential equations with

zero initial conditions gives:

Eliminating Ia yields the input-output transfer function

Example-6.1: Armature Controlled D.C Motor
Reduced Order Model
Assuming small inductance, La 0

which is equivalent to

• The D.C. motor provides an input torque and an additional damping

effect known as back-emf damping
Example-6.1: Armature Controlled D.C Motor
If output of the D.C motor is angular position θ then we know

Ra La
B
ia
u eb T J
θ
t
stan
= con
Vf
Which yields following transfer function
 Example-6.2: Field Controlled D.C Motor
Rf Ra La

if
ef Lf Tm J ea
B ω

Applying KVL at field circuit

Mechanical Subsystem
 Example-6.2: Field Controlled D.C Motor

Power Transformation:

Torque-Current:

where Kf: torque constant

Combing previous equations and taking Laplace transform (considering

initial conditions to zero) results in the following mathematical model:
 Example-6.2: Field Controlled D.C Motor
Eliminating If(S) yields

If angular position θ is output of the motor

Rf Ra La

if
ef Lf Tm J ea
B θ
 Example-6.3
An armature controlled D.C motor runs at 5000 rpm when 15v applied at the
armature circuit. Armature resistance of the motor is 0.2 Ω, armature
inductance is negligible, back emf constant is 5.5x10-2 v sec/rad, motor torque
constant is 6x10-5, moment of inertia of motor 10-5, viscous friction coeffcient
is negligible, moment of inertia of load is 4.4x10-3, viscous friction coeffcient of
load is 4x10-2.
Ra La
Bm N1
ia
ea 15 v eb T Jm
BL

JL
t
stan L
con N2
=
Vf
1. Drive the overall transfer function of the system i.e. ΩL(s)/ Ea(s)
2. Determine the gear ratio such that the rotational speed of the load is
reduced to half and torque is doubled.
 System constants

ea = armature voltage

eb = back emf

Ra = armature winding resistance = 0.2 Ω

La = armature winding inductance = negligible

ia = armature winding current

Kb = back emf constant = 5.5x10-2 volt-sec/rad

Kt = motor torque constant = 6x10-5 N-m/ampere

Jm = moment of inertia of the motor = 1x10-5 kg-m2

Bm=viscous-friction coefficients of the motor = negligible

JL = moment of inertia of the load = 4.4x10-3 kgm2

 Example-6.3
Since armature inductance is negligible therefore reduced order transfer
function of the motor is used.

Ra La
Bm N1
ia
ea 15 v eb T Jm
BL

JL
t
stan L
n N2
=co
Vf
 Example-6.4
A field controlled D.C motor runs at 10000 rpm when 15v applied at the field
circuit. Filed resistance of the motor is 0.25 Ω, Filed inductance is 0.1 H,
motor torque constant is 1x10-4, moment of inertia of motor 10-5, viscous
friction coefficient is 0.003, moment of inertia of load is 4.4x10-3, viscous
friction coefficient of load is 4x10-2.

Rf Ra La
N1
if ea
ef Lf Tm
Bm ωm Jm BL
JL
L
N2
1. Drive the overall transfer function of the system i.e. ΩL(s)/ Ef(s)
2. Determine the gear ratio such that the rotational speed of the load is
reduced to 500 rpm.
Part-I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

36
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
resistor is given by Ohm’s law i-e

• The Laplace transform of the above equation is

 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
Capacitor is given as:

• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no

charge stored in the capacitor) is
 Basic Elements of Electrical Systems

• The time domain expression relating voltage and current for the
inductor is given as:

• The Laplace transform of the above equation (assuming there is no

energy stored in inductor) is
 V-I and I-V relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation I-V Relation

Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

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 Example#1
• The two-port network shown in the following figure has vi(t) as
the input voltage and vo(t) as the output voltage. Find the
transfer function Vo(s)/Vi(s) of the network.

vi( t) i(t) C vo(t)

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 Example#1

• Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial

conditions to zero.

• Re-arrange both equations as:

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 Example#1

• Substitute I(s) in equation on left

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 Example#1

• The system has one pole at

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 Example#2
• Design an Electrical system that would place a pole at -3 if
added to another system.

vi( t) i(t) C v2(t)

• System has one pole at

• Therefore,

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 Example#3
• Find the transfer function G(S) of the following
two port network.

vi(t) i(t) C vo(t)

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 Example#3
• Simplify network by replacing multiple components with
their equivalent transform impedance.

Z
Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

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Transform Impedance (Resistor)

iR(t) IR(S)
+ +
Transformation
vR(t) ZR = R VR(S)

- -

48
Transform Impedance (Inductor)

IL(S)
iL(t)
+ +

vL(t) ZL=LS VL(S)

LiL(0)
-
-

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Transform Impedance (Capacitor)

ic(t) Ic(S)
+ +

vc(t) ZC(S)=1/CS Vc(S)

- -

50
 Equivalent Transform Impedance (Series)
• Consider following arrangement, find out equivalent
transform impedance.

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Equivalent Transform Impedance (Parallel)

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 Equivalent Transform Impedance
• Find out equivalent transform impedance of
following arrangement.
L2

L2
R1 R2

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 Back to Example#3

L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

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 Example#3

L
Z

Vi(s) I(s) C Vo(s)

55
 Example#4
• Find transfer function Vout(s)/Vin(s) of the following electrical
network

R
Vin C Vout
L

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 Example#5
• Find transfer function Vout(s)/Vin(s) of the following electrical
network
C1

R
Vin C3 Vout
L
C2

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Mathematical Modeling of Liquid Level Systems
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
• Laminar Flow
– Flow dominated by viscosity forces
is called laminar flow and is
characterized by a smooth, parallel
line motion of the fluid

• Turbulent Flow
– When inertia forces dominate, the
flow is called turbulent flow and is
characterized by an irregular motion
of the fluid.
 Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
• Consider the flow through a short pipe connecting two
tanks as shown in Figure.

• Where H1 is the height (or level) of first tank, H2 is the

height of second tank, R is the resistance in flow of liquid
and Q is the flow rate.
 Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The resistance for liquid flow in such a pipe is defined as the change
in the level difference necessary to cause a unit change inflow rate.
 Resistance in Laminar Flow
• For laminar flow, the relationship between the steady-state flow
rate and steady state height at the restriction is given by:

• Where Q = steady-state liquid flow rate in m/s3

• Kl = constant in m/s2
• and H = steady-state height in m.

• The resistance Rl is
 Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The capacitance of a tank is defined to be the change in quantity of
stored liquid necessary to cause a unity change in the height.

• Capacitance (C) is cross sectional area (A) of the tank.

Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems

h
Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems

h
Modeling Example#1
 Modeling Example#1
• The rate of change in liquid stored in the tank is equal to the flow in
minus flow out.

(1)

• The resistance R may be written as

(2)

• Rearranging equation (2)

(3)
 Modeling Example#1
(1) (4)

• Substitute qo in equation (1)

• After simplifying above equation

• Taking Laplace transform considering initial conditions to zero

 Modeling Example#1

• The transfer function can be obtained as

 Modeling Example#1
• The liquid level system considered here is analogous to the
electrical and mechanical systems shown below.
 Modeling Example#2
• Consider the liquid level system shown in following Figure. In this
system, two tanks interact. Find transfer function Q2(s)/Q(s).
 Modeling Example#2

• Tank 1 Pipe 1

• Tank 2 Pipe 2
 Modeling Example#2

• Tank 1 Pipe 1

• Tank 2 Pipe 2

• Re-arranging above equation

 Modeling Example#2

• Taking LT of both equations considering initial conditions to zero

[i.e. h1(0)=h2(0)=0].

(1)

(2)
 Modeling Example#2
(1) (2)

• From Equation (1)

• Substitute the expression of H1(s) into Equation (2), we get

 Modeling Example#2

• Using H2(s) = R2Q2 (s) in the above equation

 Modeling Example#3
• Write down the system differential equations.
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END OF LECTURE-3

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