Welcome

SSPH011 Class of 2021

BIOPHYSICS
MA Letsoalo
0829358999
molamo.letsoalo@ul.ac.za
Maila MT 202016280 0715855552
Ramaila E 202054001 071 389 7680
 My Expectations
• Come to class
• Be punctual and manage your time well
• Do your work
• Do not fall behind
• Collaborate
• Do not cheat
• If you have questions get them answered
• If you have a problem tell me about it
 Important Information
• Module outline: on Bb in Course Materials
• Classes: 07:30 Tuesday and 07:30 Wednesday
• Practical: Weekly (TBA)
• Assignments: Weekly
• Tests : Monthly
• Exam : around June/July
 PHYSICS
What is Physics
• the branch of science concerned with the
nature and properties of matter and energy.
Matter: Solids, liquids and gases
Energy: ability to make things change
• Moreover, it's the basis of many other
sciences and can be applied to biological,
health, agricultural and medical science.
 Biophysics
• Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that
uses the methods of physics to study
biological systems, with the ultimate goal of
understanding at a fundamental level the
structure, dynamics, interactions, and
ultimately the function of biological systems
 What is involved
• Charges
• Matter
• Waves
• and how they interact with living tissues
 Charges
• Electricity
– Electrostatics
– Electrodynamics
– Electronics
 Waves
• Mechanical waves:
– Water waves
– Sound
• Electromagnetic waves:
– Light
– Heat
– Radio waves
– X-rays
– γ-rays
– Ultra Violet rays
– microwaves
 Wave
• A wave can be described as a
disturbance/vibration that travels through a
medium, transporting energy from one
location (its source) to another location
without transporting matter.
• Each individual particle of the medium is
temporarily displaced and then returns to its
original equilibrium positioned.
• A medium is a substance or material that
carries the wave. The wave medium is not the
wave and it doesn't make the wave; it merely
carries or transports the wave from its source
to other locations
• A wave transport energy without transporting
matter
Mathematical representation of a wave
 Frequency (f)
measured in Herts (Hz)
 Amplitude (A)
measured in meters (m)
 Relationships
• y=
• f∞
• f∞
• Speed (c) =
 Categories of waves
• A transverse wave is a wave in which particles
of the medium move in a direction
perpendicular to the direction that the wave
moves
• A longitudinal wave is a wave in which
particles of the medium move in a direction
parallel to the direction that the wave moves
 OPTICS

Optics is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and
the interaction of light with matter. Optics explains optical phenomena.

SUNLIGHT LIGHTNING

BEAM
 Nature of Light
• Transverse wave
• Electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic waves
 Colour is related to the frequency and/ or
wavelength of light wave
•
 Brightness is related to Amplitude of light wave

Dim light

Bright light
• Frequency/wavelength is related to colour
• Amplitude is related to brightness
 Speed of light
• The speed of light is about
• 300 000 km per second
• 300 000 000 m/s
• 3 x108m/s
 Sources of light
Common sources of light
• Incandescence
• Fluorescence
• Light Emitting Diode
• Laser
 Incandescence
Electron absorbs some thermal (heat)
energy which causes it to “jump” to a
higher energy level. This is called
excitation. E2
Energy
E1

Nucleus
 de-excitation
The electron, preferring to be in the
lower energy, immediately drops back
down to the lower energy level.

E2 Energy

E1
 In order to conserve energy, a photon
(discrete bundle of energy) is emitted.
E2 Photon Energy

E1 Photon Energy = E2 – E1

Because of the behavior of matter and energy at

the atomic scale, which is governed by Quantum
Mechanics, the energy of the photon is equal to
the difference in the energies of the two energy
levels and is also proportional to its frequency.
 Incandescent Bulb
• Incandescence is the emission of light (visible
electromagnetic radiation) from a hot body
due to its temperature
Bi xenon lights
 Sources of light
Incandescence
• Excitation of atoms by Heat
• Waste energy
• Contains no poisonous gases (halogen, Xenon)
• Can be operated by both ac and dc
• Used for residential, automotive lighting
 Fluorescence
Fluorescence occurs when UV light is absorbed by the electrons
of an atom and visible light is emitted upon de-excitation.
.
 Fluorescent Lamps

High-speed
electron
e- Hg
atom

UV Phosphor
Photon Coating

Fluorescence
 Fluorescence

• Excitation of atoms by ultraviolet radiation

• Contains toxic gas (mercury vapour)
• Use only ac
• Energy Efficient, long lasting
• Use for space lighting but are not used for
automotive lighting
 Advantagesof Flouresence

• Efficiency: Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than

incandescent light bulbs of an equivalent brightness.
converted to usable light and a, allowing fluorescent lamps
to run cooler.
• Life: Typically a fluorescent lamp will last between 10 to 20
times as long as an equivalent incandescent lamp when
operated several hours at a time.
• Lower heat: About two-thirds to three-quarters less heat is
given off by fluorescent lamps compared to an equivalent
installation of incandescent lamps. This greatly reduces the
size, cost, and energy consumption of air-conditioning
equipment.
 Disadvantages of flouresence

• Health issues:
• If a fluorescent lamp is broken, mercury can
contaminate the surrounding environment.
• Fluorescent lamps can trigger problems among
individuals with pathological sensitivity to ultraviolet
light.
• In addition to causing headache and fatigue, and
problems with light sensitivity they are listed as
problematic for individuals with epilepsy lupus,[12]
chronic fatigue syndrome, and vertigo.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a
semiconductor diode that emits light when an
electric current is applied in the forward direction
of the device
 LED
• Excitation of atom due to p-n junction
• Efficient, long lasting, bright, small size, robust
• Space lighting, automotive lighting, indicator, tv
• Operate only on dc or ac dc inverter
•
 Advantages of LED

• LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs;

• LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without the use of
colour filters
• LEDs light up very quickly..
• LEDs can have a relatively long useful life.
• LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage
with external shock
• LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed
circuit boards.
• LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.
• LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes.
 Lasers

Light
Amplification
by Stimulated
Emission
of Radiation
 Laser Light

Laser light has the following properties:

• The light released is monochromatic.
• The light released is coherent. It is “organized” --
each photon moves in step with the others, so it
does not spreadout.
• The light is very directional. A laser light has a very
tight beam and is very strong and concentrated.
 LASER
• Excitation of atom by visible light
• Monochromatic, directional, coherent
• Can not be used for space or domestic lighting
Warning symbol for lasers
Common Laser Signs and Labels

45
 Optical media/material
• Transparent material

• Opaque materials
 Transparent material

• allows light to pass through

• one can see through such materials
 Opaque material
• does not allow light to pass through
• one can not see through the material
• opaque material either reflect or absorb light
• The surface of an opaque material can be
smooth or can be rough
• Reflection can either be diffused or specular
 Opaque Surfaces
Rough surface
• Diffused reflection
• Surface looks matt
 Smooth surface

• Specular reflection
• Surface looks shiny
• Smooth optical surface is also called
Mirror
 Sight
We see objects when they reflect light rays into
our eyes
 Recap
• Physics: Interaction of matter and energy
• Biophysics: Application of Physics to Biological
systems
• Scope: Optics(light wave), Acoustics(sound wave),
Thermodynamics(heart wave), Body
mechanics(solids), Fluid mechanics(liquids and gases),
Electricity, Modern Physics(radiations and therapies)
• Waves: Quantities: wavelength, frequency, amplitude
• Optics: Nature of light, sources of light, speed of light,
optical media(transparent & opaque),
reflections( defused and specular)
model
 Laws of reflection
1. Angle of incident θi =angle of reflection θr
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie
in the same plane
 vision
•
Mirrors(smooth surfaces)
1. Spherical mirrors
 Mirrors
1. Spherical mirrors

Convex
mirror
 Concave mirror
• Converges light rays
• Has a positive radius
• Has a positive focal point

NB. If a measured quantity is on the same side

of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray then the
quantity is positive
 Convex Mirror
• Diverges light rays
• Has a negative radius
• Has a negative focal point

NB. If a measured quantity is not on the same

side of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray then
the quantity is negative
 Plain mirror
1. R=∞
2. Neither diverges nor converges
light rays
Image formation
Image formed by specular reflection of light
 Quantities
• Object distance s
• Image distance s’
• Radius of curvature R
• Focal length f
 Image characteristics

Nature of an image
• Real image
– Can be cast on a screen

• Virtual image
– Can not be cast on a screen
Image size
• Enlarged or magnified image
– The image is bigger than the object

• Diminished or reduced image

– The image is smaller that the object
•
Image orientation
• Upright or erect image
– The image has the same orientation as that
of the object.

• Inverted image
– The image’s orientation is opposite that of
the object.
 Mirror Equations

C.
 Sign conversion
• If a measured quantity is on the same side of
the mirror as the INCIDENT ray then the
quantity is positive
• If a measured quantity is not on the same side
of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray then the
quantity is negative
 Image characteristics
• Nature
– real image s’ is positive
– Virtual image s’ is negative
• Orientation
– Upright/erect m is positive
– Inverted m is negative
• Magnification/size
– Enlarged image |m|>1
– Diminished |m|<1
– Same size as the object |m|=1
 Example
• A 4cm tall pencil placed at 5cm from a
concave mirror with a focal length of 10cm.
• +=
=--==
s’=-10cm
m=-=-=2
 Example

Nature: s’=-10cm. The image is Virtual

Position: s’=-10cm. The image behind the mirror
Magnification: m=-=-=2 (The image is enlarged
(2x4cm=8cm)
Orientation: m=-=-=2 The image is upright
 Example 2
• A 4cm tall pencil placed at 5cm from a plain
mirror.
• +=
=-
s’=-5cm
m=-=-=1
 Example

Nature: s’=-5cm. The image is

Position: s’=-10cm. The image behind the mirror
Magnification: m=-=-=1 (The image is of the
same size as the object)
Orientation: m=-=-=1 The image is upright
CONVEX MIRROR
•
•
 Optical Media
• Opaque materials REFLECT light
• Transparent optical medium
– Allow light to pass through
– Refract light
 Refraction
• As light passes from one transparent medium
to another, it changes speed, and bends.

REFRACTION: Is the bending of light ray when entering

into a new medium of different refractive index.
 Refractive index
• The degree of refraction depends on
– the refractive index of the mediums and
– the angle of refraction
 Refractive index
•  
 Interface
• Refraction takes place at the interface
separating the two mediums with different
refractive indices

The wave length becomes shorter and the wave speed decreases.
The Frequency Remains the same
if it strikes the interface with an
angle of incidence of 0 degrees,
then no bending will occur.
When a beam of light moves from low index of refraction (air) into a high index of refraction
(glass), its path is bent toward the normal. The angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of
incidence

When a beam of light moves from high index of refraction (glass) into a low index of
refraction (air), its path is bent away from the normal. The angle of refraction is larger than
the angle of incidence
• Apparent Depth
• Real Dr and Apparent depth Da
•  
 Law of refraction
Snell’s Law
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of refraction Θ2 is related to the angle of incident Θ1 by

n1 sin 1  n 2 sin  2
• Example

The angle of refraction depends on the angle of incident and on the indices of
Refraction, n2 and n1, of the media.
 Critical angle
The angle of incident for which the angle of
refraction is 90° OR
The angle of incident for which the refracted ray
emerges tangent to the surface.
 Critical angle

• n1sinθ=n2sin90 o

• ncsinθ=n2sin90 o
 Total internal reflection
When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is no refracted light. All the
•
incident light is reflected back into the medium from which it came, a phenomenon called
Total Internal Reflection.
How Optical Fiber Works
 The advantages of using fibre optics
• Because of the Low loss, high bandwidth properties of fiber cable they can be used over
greater distances than copper cables
• Their light weight and small size also make them ideal for applications where running
copper cables would be impractical
• Its immunity to Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI), and the fact that glass is not an
electrical conductor
• Security aspect, it is very, very difficult to tap into a fibre cable to read the data signals

Multi-Mode Optical Fibre

62.5 micron cores 125 micron cladding

62.5/125 micron loose tube

THE DISPERSION OF LIGHT IN A PRISM

Angle of deviation
The speed of light through a material varies slightly with the wavelength or frequency
of the light. Thus, each wavelength is refracted at a slightly different angle when
passing through a material at an angle. This spreading out of the beam of light
is called dispersion or chromatic dispersion.

A substance in which the speed of a wave varies with wavelength is said to exhibit
DISPERSION
White light separates into different colours
(wavelengths) on entering the raindrop
because red light is refracted by a lesser
angle than blue light. On leaving the raindrop,
the red rays have turned through a smaller
 Some rainbows appear to be exceptionally close.
This one is formed by a waterfall

Rainbows may also appear in the spray of a water fountain

 Lenses
• Convex lens converges (focuses) light rays

• Concave lens diverges (spreads) light rays

 Convex lens
• Converging lens
• Positive lens (focusing)
• Has a positive focal length f
 Concave lens
• Diverges light rays
• Negative lens (spreading)
• Negative focal point
Other forms of lenses
 Image formation using lenses
• Quantities on the side of the REFRACTED ray
are POSITIVE (except object distance)
• Quantities which are not on the side of the
REFRACTED ray are NEGATIVE (except object
distance)

• In front of lens -ve; Behind the lens +ve

(Except object distance)
CONVERGING (POSITIVE) LENSES
 Lens equation
1 1 1
  Lens equation
s s' f

1 1 1 1 1 
   n  1   Lens maker’s Equation
s s' f  R1 R2 

 s'
m
s
y'
m
y s s’
 Image characteristics
• Nature
– real image s’ is positive
– Virtual image s’ is negative
• Orientation
– Upright/erect m is positive
– Inverted m is negative
• Magnification/size
– Enlarged image |m|>1
– Diminished |m|<1
– Same size as the object |m|=1
 Examples
• Convex lens s=30cm f=10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 3 1 2 1
     s’=15cm
s ' 10cm 30cm 30cm 30cm 15cm

 s '  15cm  1
m    0.5
s 30cm 2

The image is real because s’ is positive

The image is inverted because m is negative
The image is diminished because |m|<1
 Examples
• Convex lens s=5cm f=10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 1 2 1
    s’=-10cm
s ' 10cm 5cm 10cm 10cm

 s'  (10cm) 10
m   2
s 5cm 5

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is enlarged because |m|>1
 Examples
• Concave lens s=30cm f=-10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1  3 1 4
    s’=-7.5cm
s' 10cm 30cm 30cm 30cm

 s '  (7.5cm) 7.5

m    0.25
s 30cm 30

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is diminished because |m|<1
 Examples
• Concave lens s=5cm f=-10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 1  2 3
    s’=-3.33cm
s' 10cm 5cm 10cm 10cm

 s'  (3.3cm)
m   0.66
s 5cm

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is diminished because |m|<1
LENS ABERRATION
LENS ABERRATIONS

An aperture is used to correct spherical aberration

Combination of lenses are used to correct

Chromatic aberration
 The human eye
• An amazing optical instrument
The human eye
IMAGE FORMED ON THE RETINA (INVERTED)
 Eye concepts

• Accommodation
• Near point
• Far point
• Lens power
 IRIS( colored ring)- adjusts size and regulate the amount of light entering the eye through
the pupil- Adaptation

Ciliary Muscles – Control the shape and focal length of the lens
Relaxed – light from the distance is focused on the retina
Contract – lens assume round shape and reduces its focal length bringing light
from nearby object into focus
Accommodation – The ability of the lens to adjust its focal length.

Near Point:- Is the nearest the eye at which an object can be placed
and still produced a sharp Image on the retina. Normal near point is
25cm. Varies with age and race

Far Point :- Is the location of the farthest object on which the fully
relaxed eye can focus
Normal far point is infinity ∞
 Accommodation
•
Optical Defects of the eye
Myopia: nearsightedness Hyperopia: farsightedness
 EYE DEFECTS
NEARSIGHTED [MYOPIC] (Can only see nearby objects clearly) :
Then lens is too strong and bends light too much.
The far point is nearer than infinity
Light from a distant object focuses before reaching the retina.
Myopia
 Example: Myopic eye
• The far point of a certain myopic eye is 50cm in front of the
eye. What lens should be used to see clearly distant objects.

• s= ∞ which is the normal far point

• s’=-50cm which is the defective far point

1 1 1
 
s s' f
1 1 1
1 1 1  
  f   50cm'
f s s'
f=-50cm = -0.5m
Concave lens
Lens power =1/f=1/-0.5m=-2 diopter
FARSIGHTED [HYPEROPIC] (Can only see distant objects clearly):
Then lens is too weak And bends light too little. Light from a nearby object
doesn’t reach a focus by the time it strikes the retina and focus beyond the
retina.
Hyperopia
 Example: Hyperopic eye
• The near point of a certain hyperopic eye is 100cm in front of
the eye. What lens should be used to see clearly an objects
25cm in front of the eye.

• s= 25cm which is the normal near point

• s’=-100cm which is the defective near point
1 1 1
 
s s' f
1 1 1
1 1 1  
  f 25cm  100cm'
f s s'
f=33cm = 0.33m
Convex lens
Lens power =1/f= 1/0.33= +3 diopter
 Astigmatism means that the cornea OR lens is oval like a rugby ball
instead of spherical like a soccer ball.

Most astigmatic corneas have two curves – a steeper curve and a flatter curve.
This causes light to focus on more than one point in the eye, resulting in blurred
vision at distance or near.
PRESBYOPIA
Reduction in accommodation that occurs with age, is the result of gradual weakening of
the Ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the lens
EYE DISEASES

Cataracts
 EYE DISEASES

Cataracts

As you grow older, proteins in your eye's

natural lens begin to clump together,
gradually making the lens cloudier and An intraocular lens (IOL) is implanted in the
less able to admit light into the back of eye in place of the patient's clouded natural lens.
the eye. Vision becomes blurry and foggy,
and eventually the lens must be removed.
Open angle glaucoma is one of the most common forms of the disease.

when this intraocular pressure (IOP) increases to dangerous levels,

it damages the optic nerve. This can result in decreased peripheral vision
and, eventually, blindness.
Electromagnetic waves
 Acoustics
• Study of sound
– Sound is a wave
– Sound is a longitudinal wave
– Sound is a mechanical wave
Sound wave
 Relationships
• Amplitude is related to Loudness
– The higher the amplitude the louder the sound
– Loudness is measured in decibels (dB)
• examples
Loudness
• Frequency is related to tone/pitch
• The higher the frequency the higher the
pitch/tone
Sound of music
Noise
 Sources of Sound
• Vibrating media (solid, liquid or gas)

• Vacuum?
 Categories of sound
• Infrasonic (low frequency sound)
• Audible sound
• Ultrasonic (very high frequency sound)
 Categories of sound
• f<20Hz Infrasonic
• Can not be heard but can be felt: courses
anxiety, extreme sorrow Examples: heartbeat,
digestion, earthquake, tsunami
• Carries huge amounts of energy( can course
acoustic trauma)
How infrasonic Interaction with matter

• Reflected by low density materials and easily

transmitted through high density material.
 Applications of infrasonic
• Detection of leakages in blood vessels or
pipelines, detection of low density substances;
e.g underground pipes, underground water
• Monitoring of earthquakes, tsunamis and
storms, weather, animals
• Therapy: Optical and muscular
• Communication in animals
Detection: Low density material
 f> 20kHZ; ULTRASONIC
• Can not be heard
• Can be felt (heat)
• Uses
– diagnostic/detection: foetus (sonography/sonar)
and heart conditions
– Destruction of tumours
– cell separation and cell assemble (Sonotweezers)
– Navigation in animals
– Communication in animals
Scan (Detection High density)
 Scan
• Detection
 Mercedes GLA
Detection: High Densityors
• Park Assist
• Pre Safe
• Lane change control
Scan
Detection: High Density material
Scan
Scan (Detection: High Density)
Detection
SONAR
• c
• sonar
 echo
a
 Audible sound
• f from20Hz to 20kHz
• Can be heard
• Carries energy
 Speed of Sound
• Medium velocity m/sec
air (20 C) 343
air (0 C) 331
water (25 C) 1493
sea water 1533
diamond 12000
iron 5130
copper 3560
glass 5640
 Reflection of audible sound
• Reflection of sound is called an echo
• Multiple reflection of audible sound is called
reverberation
• Smooth and/or hard materials reflect audible
sound
• Soft and/or rough materials absorb audible
sound
Echo
 Applications
• Resonance
– All materials have a Natural frequency
– If materials are forced to vibrate at natural
frequency they resonate (increased amplitude)
Destruction: Non living material
Tatar
 Sonic violence/acoustic attack
• "…any unwanted sound, soft or loud, sweet or
nasty, creates a multidimensional envelope that
does more than intrude - it takes over not only
your acoustic space, but your mind space as
well. Acoustic intrusions reduce your freedom of
thought. There is no escaping sound. It meets
your body and forcibly enters your mind, not
just through your ears but also via your bones,
your flesh, and your body cavities."
Electromagnetic waves
 Infrared
Thermal Physics
 Temperature vs heat
• Temperature is a property of a material, and thus
depends on the material,
• whereas heat is a form of energy. It is an
electromagnetic wave called infrared
• The difference between heat and temperature is
analogous to the difference between money and
wealth.
• Heat=thermal energy. Heat is a measure of how much
thermal energy is transmitted from one body to
another.
• Temperature measures the concentration of thermal
energy in an object (a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules that make up that material)
• As a result, a large object will have a much lower
temperature than a small object with the same
amount of thermal energy.
 Temperature measurement
• SI Unit of temperature is a Kelvin (K)
• Minimum possible temperature=0K (absolute zero)
• Maximum possible temperature is infinity
• Operational unit of temperature= Degree Celsius (0C)
• TC=TK -273 and TK=273+TC
• Temperature is not additive
Examples
 Measuring instrument

• An instrument used to measure temperature is a

thermometer
• Thermometer: A device for measuring temperature
• Liquid in glass thermometer
• Resistance thermometer
• Acoustic thermometer
• Chemical thermometer
 Accuracy
• The average normal oral temperature is 37°C
• A rectal temperature is 0.3°C to 0.6°C higher than
an oral temperature.
• An ear (tympanic) temperature is 0.3°C to 0.6°C
higher than an oral temperature.
• An armpit (axillary) temperature is usually 0.3°C
0.6°C lower than an oral temperature.
• A forehead (temporal) scanner is usually 0.3°C to
0.6°C lower than an oral temperature.
Axillary/Forehead Oral (°C) Rectal/Ear (°C)
(°C)
36.9–37.4 37.5–37.7 38–38.3
37.5–38.4 37.8–38.5 38.4–39.1
38.5–38.9 38.6–39.1 39.2–39.7
39–39.5 39.2–39.7 39.8–40.3
39.6–40 39.8–40.3 40.4–40.9
 Temperature difference ΔT
• ΔT is the same in OC and in K
 Heat (Q)
• Thermal energy
• Measured in joules
• Exist only when there is a temperature difference
• Always flow from high to low temperature in a
material
• Proportional to mass of the substance
 Heat capacity (specific heat)
• Heat capacity, c : a measures how much heat
is required to raise the temperature of a
certain mass of a given substance.
• Every substance has a different specific heat,
but specific heat is a constant for that
substance.

• Q=mcΔT
 Thermal Equilibrium

• Put a hot mug of coffee in your hand, and your

hand will get warmer while the mug gets
cooler. You may have noticed that the reverse
never happens: Whenever two objects of
different temperatures are placed in contact,
heat will flow from the hotter of the two
objects to the colder until they both have the
same temperature. When they reach this
state, we say they are in thermal equilibrium.
 Phase Changes

• As you know, if you heat a block of ice, it won’t simply

get warmer. It will melt and become liquid. If you heat
it even further, it will boil and become a gas.
• When a substance changes between being a solid,
liquid, or gas, we say it has undergone a phase change.
below.
 Latent Heat of Transformation

• Just as heat capacity tells us how much heat it

takes to increase the temperature of a
substance, the latent heat of transformation,
q, tells us how much heat it takes to change
the phase of a substance

• Q=mL
 Thermal Expansion

• You may have noticed in everyday life that

substances can often expand or contract
with a change in temperature even if they
don’t change phase
 Methods of Heat Transfer

• There are three different ways heat can

be transferred from one substance to
another or from one place to another.
 Conduction

• Conduction is the transfer of heat by

intermolecular collisions. Conduction is the most
common way of transferring heat between two
solids or liquids, or within a single solid or liquid.
Conduction is also a common way of transferring
heat through gases.
 Convection

• While conduction involves molecules passing

their kinetic energy to other molecules,
convection involves the molecules themselves
moving from one place to another. For example, a
fan works by displacing hot air with cold air.
Convection usually takes place with gases
traveling from one place to another.
 Radiation

• Molecules can also transform heat into

electromagnetic waves, so that heat is transferred
not by molecules but by the waves themselves. A
familiar example is the microwave oven, which
sends microwave radiation into the food, energizing
the molecules in the food without those molecules
ever making contact with other, hotter molecules.
Radiation takes place when the source of heat is
some form of electromagnetic wave, such as a
microwave or sunlight.
Water Waves
 Tsunami
Wave length, 500 to 600 km in ocean
 Tsunami Warning
• On December 26, they were playing in the sea when Tilly
suddenly found the water was bubbling, like on top of a beer.
She immediately realized tsunami was coming because the
scene reminded her of a geography lesson about Hawaii's
1946 tsunami.
• Right away, Tilly told her parents, sister and other tourists to
escape quickly, but at first they were in half belief. However,
seeing Tilly's serious and firm expression, people started to be
convinced of the seriousness of the thing and instantly left the
beach.
• At last over 100 tourists were ended up in safety with no
death