Human Vision and Cameras

Slides adapted from

http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~gdguo/courses/cv.html
 Outline
• Human vision system
• Cameras and image formation

• Reading: Chapter 2 (Szeliski)

 Human Eyes
• The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense
of sight, allowing us to observe and learn more about
the surrounding world than we do with any of the
other four senses. 
• The eye allows us to see and interpret the shapes,
colors, and dimensions of objects in the world by
processing the light they reflect or emit.  The eye is
able to detect bright light or dim light, but it cannot
sense objects when light is absent.
 Anatomy of the Human Eye
• http://www.tedmontgomery.com/the_eye/
 Some Concepts
• Retina – The retina is
the innermost layer of
the eye and is
comparable to the film
inside of a camera.  It is
composed of nerve
tissue which senses the
light entering the eye.
 Concepts
• The macula lutea is the small, yellowish central
portion of the retina.  It is the area providing
the clearest, most distinct vision. 
• The center of the macula is called the fovea
centralis, an area where all of the
photoreceptors are cones; there are no rods in
the fovea. 
• Learn more concepts at
http://www.tedmontgomery.com/the_eye/
 Rods and Cones
• The retina contains two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
• The rods are more numerous, some 120 million, and are more
sensitive than the cones. However, they are not sensitive to color.
• The 6 to 7 million cones provide the eye's color sensitivity and they
are much more concentrated in the central yellow spot known as
the macula.
 Cones
There are three types of cones:
• – Red cones, accounting for
64% of the total, also known
as L-cones (maximally
sensitive to long-wave light).
• – Green cones, accounting
for 32% of the total, also
known as M-cones
(maximally sensitive to
medium-wave light).
• – Blue cones, accounting for
2 – 7% of the total, also
known as S-cones (maximally
sensitive to short-wave light).
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Cameras
Image Formation

Digital Camera

Film

Alexei Efros’ slide

 How do we see the world?

• Let’s design a camera

– Idea 1: put a piece of film in front of an object
– Do we get a reasonable image?
Slide by Steve Seitz
 Pinhole camera

• Add a barrier to block off most of the rays

– This reduces blurring
– The opening known as the aperture

Slide by Steve Seitz

 Pinhole camera model

• Pinhole model:
– Captures pencil of rays – all rays through a single point
– The point is called Center of Projection (focal point)
– The image is formed on the Image Plane
Slide by Steve Seitz
 Dimensionality Reduction Machine (3D to 2D)

3D world 2D image

Point of observation

What have we lost?

• Angles
• Distances (lengths)
Slide by A. Efros
Figures © Stephen E. Palmer, 2002
 Projection properties
• Many-to-one: any points along same ray map
to same point in image
• Points → points
– But projection of points on focal plane is undefined
• Lines → lines (collinearity is preserved)
– But line through focal point projects to a point
• Planes → planes (or half-planes)
– But plane through focal point projects to line
 Projection properties
• Parallel lines converge at a vanishing point
– Each direction in space has its own vanishing point
– But parallels parallel to the image plane remain parallel
– All directions in the same plane have vanishing points on the same line
 Distant objects are smaller
Size is inversely proportional to distance.
 Perspective distortion
• What does a sphere project to?
 Shrinking the aperture

• Why not make the aperture as small as possible?

– Less light gets through
– Diffraction effects…
Slide by Steve Seitz
Shrinking the aperture
The reason for lenses
 Adding a lens

• A lens focuses light onto the film

– Rays passing through the center are not
deviated

Slide by Steve Seitz

 Adding a lens

focal point

• A lens focuses light onto the film

– Rays passing through the center are not deviated
– All parallel rays converge to one point on a plane located at the
focal length f

Slide by Steve Seitz

 Adding a lens

“circle of
confusion”

• A lens focuses light onto the film

– There is a specific distance at which objects are “in focus”
• other points project to a “circle of confusion” in the image

Slide by Steve Seitz

 Thin lens formula

D’ D
f

Frédo Durand’s slide

 Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere!

D’ D
f

Frédo Durand’s slide

 Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere! y’/y = D’/D

D’ D
f
y
y’

Frédo Durand’s slide

 Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere! y’/y = D’/D
y’/y = (D’-f)/f
D’ D
f
y
y’

Frédo Durand’s slide

 Thin lens formula
1 +1 =1 Any point satisfying the thin lens equation is in
focus.
D’ D f
D’ D
f

Frédo Durand’s slide

Thin lens formula

Images by Steve Seitz

 Depth of Field

http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/depth-of-field.htm

Slide by A. Efros
How can we control the depth of field?

• Changing the aperture size affects depth of field

– A smaller aperture increases the range in which the object is
approximately in focus
– But small aperture reduces amount of light – need to increase
exposure Slide by A. Efros
Varying the aperture

Images from https://www.exposureguide.com/focusing-basics/

Varying the aperture

Images from https://www.exposureguide.com/focusing-basics/

 Varying the aperture

Large aperture = small DOF Small aperture = large DOF

Slide by A. Efros
Nice Depth of Field effect

Source: F. Durand
Field of View (Zoom)

Slide by A. Efros
Field of View (Zoom)

Slide by A. Efros
 Field of View

f
f

FOV depends on focal length and size of the camera retina

Smaller FOV = larger Focal Length

Slide by A. Efros
Field of View / Focal Length

Large FOV, small f

Camera close to car

Small FOV, large f

Camera far from the car
Sources: A. Efros, F. Durand
 Same effect for faces

wide-angle standard telephoto

Source: F. Durand
Lens systems

• A good camera lens may

contain 15 elements and cost a
thousand dollars
• The best modern lenses may
contain aspherical elements
Lens Flaws: Chromatic Aberration
• Lens has different refractive indices for different
wavelengths: causes color fringing

Near Lens Center Near Lens Outer Edge

 Lens flaws: Spherical aberration
• Spherical lenses don’t focus light perfectly
Rays farther from the optical axis focus closer
Lens flaws: Vignetting
 Radial Distortion
– Caused by imperfect lenses
– Deviations are most noticeable for rays that pass through the
edge of the lens

No distortion Pin cushion Barrel

 Digital camera

• A digital camera replaces film with a sensor array

– Each cell in the array is light-sensitive diode that converts photons to electrons
– Two common types
• Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
• Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
– http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm

Slide by Steve Seitz

 CCD vs. CMOS
• CCD: transports the charge across the chip and reads it at one corner of the array. An
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then turns each pixel's value into a digital value by
measuring the amount of charge at each photosite and converting that measurement to
binary form

• CMOS: uses several transistors at each pixel to amplify and move the charge using more
traditional wires. The CMOS signal is digital, so it needs no ADC.
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm

http://www.dalsa.com/shared/content/pdfs/CCD_vs_CMOS_Litwiller_2005.pdf
Color sensing in camera: Color filter array
Bayer grid
Estimate missing components
from neighboring values
(demosaicing)

Why more green?

Human Luminance Sensitivity Function

Source: Steve Seitz