CHAPTER 4

Camera
 A. CAMERA

• It is a light-tight box; with a lens to form

an image; with a shutter and diaphragm
to control the entry of the image; a means
of holding a film to record the image and
a viewer or viewfinder to show the
photographer what the image is.
 B. Camera Classification

• Cameras are classified as according to:

• 1. The size of the film they use or format
of the picture they produce
• 2. The viewing/focusing system
• 3. Over all designs and functions
1. The size of the film they use or format
of the picture they produce

• A. Large format cameras – these have

bellows and use sheet films in the size
4”x5”, 5”x7” & 8”x10”
• B. Medium format cameras – some are
folding type with bellows and some are
rigid body with film size of 120, 220 &
70mm. Ex. Double lens reflex cameras
1. The size of the film they use or format
of the picture they produce

• C. Small format cameras – those with film

size of 126, 110, 35mm and 8mm.
1. The size of the film they use or format
of the picture they produce
A
B

C
2. The viewing/focusing system

• A. Those with focusing mechanism at the

back of the camera
• B. Those with optical viewfinder
 3. Over all designs and functions

• A. View camera
• B. System cameras
• C. Digital cameras
 3. Over all designs and functions

• A. View camera
 3. Over all designs and functions

• B. System cameras

---its rigid body design accepts a wide

variety of lenses, viewers, film backs and
accessories can be attached or integrated to
adapt to scientific, technical, architectural
and many other kinds of photography.

--- SLR
 3. Over all designs and functions

• C. Digital cameras --- this can digitalize

the image which can be then put into a
computer and enhanced thru software
packages.
• 2 types---*with fixed memory; **with
removable memory
 3. Over all designs and functions

• C. Digital cameras
• Images can be viewed in a computer
monitor or tv set.
• With Liquid Crystal Display monitor.
• With flash unit
• Zoom lens capability; *sound recording
TWO TYPES OF FILM CAMERAS

1. Point and Shoot

2. Single Lens Reflex
POINT AND SHOOT CAMERA
SINGLE LENS REFLEX (SLR) CAMERA
 Classification of camera
• According to Overall Design and Functions

VIEW CAMERA SYSTEM CAMERA

DIGITAL CAMERAS
 C. METHODS OF IMAGE FORMATION

1. Pinhole
-is a small tiny hole which produces an image
entirely free from distortion.
 C. METHODS OF IMAGE
FORMATION
2. Shadow Method
- Image formed by this method is
simply the shadow of an object.
- The chief application of this
method is Xray photography.
 C. METHODS OF IMAGE FORMATION

3. Lens method
--- Convergent, positive, convex lens
--- Divergent, negative, concave lens
 D. LENS

Lens is a transparent medium which

either converge or diverge light rays passing
through it to form an image.
There are two types of lenses:
 D. LENS
1. The convergent, positive, or convex lens
The lens is always thicker at the center and
thinner at the sides.
It produces a real image.
 D. LENS
2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens
-This lens is thinner at the center and
thicker at the sides.
-It produces a virtual image.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS

1. Spherical Aberration
When light passing through near the
central part of a converging lens are bended
more sharply than those rays falling in the
edge, thus the rays coming from the edges
are focused on a plane nearer the lens than
those coming from the central part.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
2. Coma
– sometimes known as lateral spherical
aberration. It concern with rays entering
the lens obliquely.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
3. Curvature of Field
– when the image formed by a lens comes
to a sharper focus on curved surface than
on a flat surface.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
4. Distortion
- a lens with distortion is incapable of
rendering straight lines correctly, either
horizontal or vertical lines. This is caused
by the displacement of the diaphragm.

– Barrel distortion – diaphragm is placed in

front of the lens.
– Pincushion distortion – diaphragm is placed
behind the lens.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
5. Chromatic Aberrations
– inability of the lens to focus all the colors
in the same place.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
6. Astigmatism
– inability of the lens to focus lines running
in different direction like for example a
cross.
 E. INHERENT LENS DEFECTS OR
ABERRATIONS
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
The defect is present when the size of the
image produced by photographic rays of
one wave length is different from the size
produced by another.
 F. Types of Lenses as According to their
Degree of Correction to the Lens Aberrations

• Achromatic lens – a lens corrected for

chromatic aberration.
• Rapid Rectilinear – lens corrected for
distortion.
• Anastigmat lens – lens corrected for
astigmatism.
• Apochromat lens – lens corrected for
astigmatism but with a higher correction
of color.
 F. Types of Lenses as According to their
Degree of Correction to the Lens Aberrations

• Achromatic lens – a lens corrected for

chromatic aberration.
 F. Types of Lenses as According to their
Degree of Correction to the Lens Aberrations

• Rapid Rectilinear – lens corrected for

distortion.
 F. Types of Lenses as According to their
Degree of Correction to the Lens Aberrations

• Anastigmat lens –
lens corrected for
astigmatism.
 F. Types of Lenses as According to their
Degree of Correction to the Lens Aberrations

• Apochromat lens – lens corrected for

astigmatism but with a higher correction
of color.
 G. FOCAL LENGTH
-fundamental characteristics of lens

-this determine the size of an image of an

object at a given distance, and the area of
coverage of lens.

-is the distance measured from the optical

center of the lens to the film plane when the
lens is set or focused at infinity position or far
 H. TYPES OF LENSES AS
ACCORDING TO FOCAL LENGTH

1. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal

length of less than the diagonal of its
negative material.
 H. TYPES OF LENSES AS ACCORDING
TO FOCAL LENGTH

2. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length

of approximately equal or more but not
more than twice the diagonal of its negative
material.
 H. TYPES OF LENSES AS ACCORDING
TO FOCAL LENGTH

3. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a

focal length of more than twice the diagonal
of its negative material.
 H. TYPES OF LENSES AS ACCORDING
TO FOCAL LENGTH

4. Zoom lens – lens with variety of focal

length.
 I. LENS DIAPHRAGM

• In between the lens component of a

camera is a metal diaphragm which can be
expanded or constricted by moving a
turning ring on the lens mount or barrel.
• The size of the opening is indicated by
markings of f-numbers.
 I. LENS DIAPHRAGM

• Each f-number represents the ratio of the

focal length of the lens and the diameter
of the opening.
• The lowest numerical f-number was the
1.09 fitted on a Canon 7 camera.
 I. LENS DIAPHRAGM

• These f-numbers indicate in succession

decrease by one-half in light intensity as
the number increases.
• Conversely, light intensity will decrease by
one-half as the numerical value increases.
This also means that f8 will admit twice
less light than f 5.6.
I. LENS DIAPHRAGM
I. LENS DIAPHRAGM
 I. LENS DIAPHRAGM

• The diaphragm serves as :

• 1. Controller of speed.
• 2. Controller of depth of field.
• 3. Controller of definition.
1. Diaphragm as a controller of speed

In the series of numbers:

“the lowest number is the widest opening or

the one that give the most amount of light”

“the highest number is the smallest opening

or the one that give the least amount of
light”.
 2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of
field

• It is not possible to focus a lens in more

than one distance at the same time.
• In any given lens objects that are nearer
or farther than the object focused upon
will be reasonably sharp.
 2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of
field

• Depth of field
• -is defined as the distance between
the nearest and the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is set
or focused on a given distance.
Influencing factors of depth of field

• A. The size of the diaphragm opening

• B. The focal length of the lens
• C. Circle of Confusion
• D. Hyperfocal Distance
A. The size of the diaphragm opening

• General Rule:

• “The smaller the opening, the longer is

the depth of field”
• “The wider is the opening, the shorter is
the depth of field”
A. The size of the diaphragm opening
 B. The focal length of the lens

• The general rule is:

“The shorter the focal length, the wider or

longer is the depth of field”
“The longer the focal length, the shorter is
the depth of field.”
B. The focal length of the lens
 C. Circle of Confusion

• Circle of confusion refers to a small circle

which is seen by the eye, not as a circle
but a dot or point.
C. Circle of Confusion
 D. Hyperfocal Distance

• This is the nearest distance at which a

lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the
maximum depth of field.
D. Hyperfocal Distance
3. Diaphragm as controller of definition.

• The term definition is the ability of the

lens to form a clear images of fine details.
Not even a theoretically perfect lens would
be capable of imaging a point source of
light as geometrical point.
3. Diaphragm as controller of definition.

• Decreasing the lens aperture improves

definition as it removes the small amount
of haze caused by residual aberrations.
J. PHOTOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE &
CORRECT VIEWING DISTANCE

• The human eye sees in three dimension

but a lens reproduces a view in two
dimension.
• Correct perspective in final photograph
depends largely upon the distance upon
which it is viewed.
 K. FOCUSING

• When light passes through a convergent

lens, these light rays are bended toward
each other meeting at appoint which is
the point of focus.
• When the subject distance to the lens is
short or near the converging point of the
light rays behind the lens increases & v.v.
 K. FOCUSING

• It is defined as the setting of the proper

distance in order to form a sharp image.
• It is the main factor that will determine
the sharpness of the images on a
photograph.
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 1. Scale bed or focusing scale

• 2. Rangefinders
• Split image
• Co-incident image

• 3. Groundglass
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 1. Scale bed or focusing scale

-the distance corresponds to the distance

from the camera lens to the subject.
-expressed in feet (ft) and in meters (m)
L. METHODS OF FOCUSING
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 2. Rangefinders

-is a mechanism used to measure the angle

of convergence of light as seen from two
apertures or opening but viewed at the
same time.

-the rangefinder is coupled with the

viewfinder.
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 2. Rangefinders

-Split Image
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 2. Rangefinders

-Co-incident image
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 3. Ground Glass
• This method of focusing is accomplished
by direct observation of the image of the
subject on a glass with finely grounded
surface.
 L. METHODS OF FOCUSING

• 3. Ground Glass
• This is found at the back of a camera or in
the case of modern cameras, also couple
with the viewfinder.
• The point of focus is where the image is
sharpest/.
L. METHODS OF FOCUSING
M. Depth of Focus or Focal Range

• When a lens is focused on any given

subject, there is one lens to film distance
where the image is sharpest, as the lens is
moved close to the film or farther away
from the film, the sharpness decreases.
M. Depth of Focus or Focal Range

• There is a small range of movement on

either side of the position of the best
focus in which the degree of unsharpness
is acceptable and the total range is called
the depth of focus.
 N. Parallax

• is the change of appearance and

orientation of objects when seen from two
viewpoints
• used to refer to the distance between the
viewpoints themselves
N. Parallax
N. Parallax
 O. Shutters

• is a device that opens to uncover the film

to make an exposure for an accurately
timed intervals then closes automatically.
 O. Shutters

• “the higher the number, the faster is the

shutter speed and will admit less light”

• “the lower the number, the slower is the

shutter speed and will admit more light”
O. Shutters
O. Shutters
 O. Shutters

• There are two major types of shutters:

• 1. Between the lens or central shutter.
• 2. Focal plane shutter.
 O. Shutters

• 1. Between the lens or central shutter.

• --- it is made of metal blades; located

between the lens component.
• --- its action starts from the center toward
the sides then closes back to the center.
• --- can be synchronized with a flash unit
 O. Shutters

• 2. Focal plane shutter.

• ---located directly in front of the film or on

the focal plane.
• ---made of cloth /metal curtain

• ---this type of shutter can give a faster

shutter speeds than the between the lens
 P. Exposure

• is the action of recording radiant energy

that produces a change on a substance
sensitive to such energy.
• It is subjective and errors in calculation
could result in either “over exposure” and
“under exposure”.
 P. Exposure
• 1. Calculating film exposure
• A simple rule provides a universal
exposure guide for color and B & W films
based on the ff. factors:
• a. film speed
• b. lighting condition
• c. type of subject
P. Exposure
 P. Exposure
• 2. Bracketing
• This technique is used exposure
calculation that will give a desired result is
uncertain ; make several exposures of less
than and more than the calculated
exposure by two or four f-stops each.
 P. Exposure
• 3. Exposure Meter

• The exposure calculators are mechanical

device or sets of reference tables from
which exposure data can be obtained on
observed subjects and lighting conditions.
P. Exposure
 P. Exposure

• Proper exposure with the use of an

exposure meter is done:
• A. incident-light meter reading: the
illumination falling from a source onto a
scene or subject is measured.
 P. Exposure

• Proper exposure with the use of an

exposure meter is done:
• B. Reflected-light meter reading from an
18 % gray card held at the subject
position or area from a key subject like the
skin.
 P. Exposure

• 4. Existing Light – also ambient light or

available photography
• --- This could be from natural light
sources, from windows, doors, skylight,
twilight, or after dark or from artificial light
sources.
 P. Exposure

• 5. Flash photography

• ---brief flash of light produced by burning

metal wires or an electric discharge thru a
gas filled tube is the most common
supplemental light for still photography.
 P. Exposure

• 5. Flash photography

• ---a flash unit offers a great light output,

in compact lightweight and economical
form.
• ---flash units with a cord is directly
attached to the camera.
 P. Exposure

• A. Exposure with flash

• 1. Shutter Speed

• The flash and shutter are usually synchronized.

Synchronization is the timing of the camera
shutter and flash so that when the shutter is
fully opened, that’s the time that flash will yield
its highest peaks of illumination.
 P. Exposure

• A. Exposure with flash

• 2. Lens Opening

Guide numbers

-are used to find the f-numbers at

which the exposure should be made on the
following formula: Guide Number (GN)
=f - number
Distance in Feet
 P. Exposure

• A. Exposure with flash

• 2. Lens Opening

Guide numbers 64
= f8
8
The lens opening is set at f8
 P. Exposure

• B. On Camera flash

• Flash on the camera or held close to the

camera with a bracket provides a direct,
hard light.
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• The flash can be moved away from the

camera at arm’s length or more.
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• 1. Multiple Flash

• more than one flash unit is used. One is

connected to the camera with a flash cord
while the other is attached to a “slave”
unit.
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• 1. Multiple Flash
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• 2. Fill-in Flash

• -when one want to eliminate or add

illumination to shadow areas or subject so
detail that otherwise will not appear
clearly in the final picture.
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• 3. Open Flash

• -the shutter speed is set at “B” and

once the shutter is open, the flash is
activated or fired released manually. Then
the shutter is released or is closed.
 P. Exposure

• C. Off flash camera

• 4. Bounce Flash

• -instead of the light going directly to

the subject, it is bounced on light colored
ceilings or walls near the subject
 P. Exposure

• D. Umbrella flash

• -a modified type of bounce flash by using

an umbrella lined with silver, white, blue,
or amber color especially made for
photography.
 P. Exposure

• E. Ring Flash

• -is a round or circular flash unit usually

placed around the outer end of the camera lens.
• -this is used for taking close-ups or
macrophotography especially made for
photography.
 P. Exposure

• E. Ring Flash
 Reciprocity Law Failure

• All photographic emulsion are subject to

effect called reciprocity law failure.
• This law states that the intensity of
illumination falling on the film times the
exposure time equals the amount of
exposure.
 Q. Photographic Filters

• Two types of filters used in photography:

• 1. Optical Filter
• 2. Particle or Solution Filter

• Subtraction is the key to understanding of

photographic filters.
 Q. Photographic Filters

• Two types of filters used in photography:

• 1. Optical Filter
• 2. Particle or Solution Filter
 Q. Photographic Filters

• Two types of filters used in photography:

• 1. Optical Filter

• -are made either of glass or acetate

• -primarily used to control exposing energy

and the composition of working illumination
in areas where sensitized materials are
handled.
 Q. Photographic Filters

• Two types of filters used in photography:

• 2. Particle or Solution Filter

• -is used in special photographic procedure

like in infrared luminescence.
 Q. Photographic Filters

1. FILTER FACTOR
---amount of increase required with
panchromatic is expressed

---filter factor refers to the multiplicative

amount of light a filter blocks.
 Q. Photographic Filters

2. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Light Balancing Filter

 Color Compensating Filter

 Neutral Density Filter

 Polarizing Filter
 Q. Photographic Filters

2. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Light Balancing Filter

-A filter used to change the color quality of

the exposing light in order to secure proper
color balance for artificial light films
 Q. Photographic Filters

2. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Color Compensating Filter

-This is used to change the over-all color

balance of photographic result obtained with
color films and to compensate for deficiencies
in the quality of exposing energy.
 Q. Photographic Filters

2. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Neutral Density Filter

-This filter is used when the light is too

bright to allow the use of desired f-number
or shutter speed with a particular film.
 Q. Photographic Filters

2. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Polarizing Filter

-is used to reduce or minimize reflections on

subjects like water glass, and highly
polished surfaces.
 Q. Photographic Filters

Special applications of filters:

a. To introduce deliberate departures from

normal color balance either to enhance a
particular color for mood & preference of
the photographer
 Q. Photographic Filters

Special applications of filters:

b. For critical work with films that are not

ordinary like IR rays or in UV fluorescence
method.

c. To correct undesirable overall tint of color

specially in color positive film/transparency.
 Q. Photographic Filters

Special applications of filters:

d. To modify the color balance of transparencies
which show overall tint.
e. To balance light sources used in color printing
f. To compensate for particular absorption like in
taking photographs under water, tinted
windows.
 R. Camera Care

• 1. Keep it clean and dry always.

• 2. Have a cleaning kit.
?