Arabic Caliphate and Azerbaijan

Intermezzo period states

Seljuks and Azerbaijan
Post-Seljuks period
 Sources

• Arabic historiography – essential for the study of Islamic civilization

• Greek sources
• Arabic sources about Azerbaijan dated back to VII-XIII centuries
• Historical, juridical and geographical sources
• Tabari, A Balazuri, Al-Istakhri, Ali ibn Al-Athir, Masudi, Khordadbekh
• Sources about Khurramits movement
• first mentioned by Amir-al-Tamim “The history of Babak” (not preserved)
• Al-Waqed, Abu Tammam, Ibn al Nadimi, Ahmed Dinavari
 Rise of Islam and Caliphate

• The rise of Prophet Muhammad and Islam

• Unification and political unity of Arabs
• Rise of the 1st Islamic Empire
• At Muhammad’s death, Islam held empire together
• Caliphate –based on Islam, multi-ethnic trans-
national empire
• By VIII Century stretched from India to the
Atlantic Ocean – the 6th largest empire to exist in
history
 Why and how did Arabs Conquer?
Muslims unification by faith
Leaders sought wealth & tribute
Warriors were guaranteed a place in Paradise if they died in battle
Taking advantage of weakened empires (Persia, Byzantine)
speed and size of Muslim armies - strongest army of the Middle East
 simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam
 acceptance of People of the Book
 Azerbaijan on the eve of Arabian Conquest

• important geo-strategic location of Albania,

• multi-ethnic and religiously diverse Albanian society (paganism, Zoroastrianism and
Christianity)

• 20-30s of the 7th cent - Azerbaijan as the arena of Sassanids, Byzantine and Khazar
Khaganate wars for the Caucasus

• Javanshir‘s diplomatic maneuvering - Arabs, Byzantines and Khazars

• Relations with Arabic caliphate and Albanian internal independence
• 680/81 – Javanshir’s assassination and lost of Albania independence
 Arabic conquest

• unknown exact date of Arabs 1st campaigns to Azerbaijan

• Up to 639 - mostly reconnaissance campaigns
• 639 – 643 sustained Arabic campaigns to Azerbaijan
• 639 – Arabs campaign to present –day Southern Azerbaijan
• Wars between between Arabs and Sassanids; end of Sassanids
• 643 –Arabs campaign across the northern Azerbaijan; capture of Derbent
• Arabs faced Khazars
• 730 – defeat of Khazars and gradual establishment of Arab rule in Azerbaijan
 Azerbaijan as the part of Arabic Caliphate

Stages of Arabic reign in Azerbaijan:

 Rigtly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun) period

 Umayyads period

 Abbasids period
 Rashiduns

• Early stage of the Islamic conquest during Omar’s caliphate

• 1st expedition to Azerbaijan
• Arabic migration
• religious tolerance
• peace treaties with local governors
 Arabian Conquest

• Peace agreements between Arabs and local Azerbaijani governors – “ahd agreements”
o Payment of jizya in return of aman – liberty of property, laws and faith
o Religious tolerance - respect to the sanctity of the fire temples No
enslavement
o Protection of the local people in exchange for tribute
o Those who refused to subdue to the Arabs, were allowed to leave the
country
o Those who voluntarily served in the Arab Army, were exempted from
taxes
 Umayyad period

• Umayyads – suppression of non-Arabs – Mawali

• Asabiyya - Arabs’ exclusiveness and inequality
• Non-Arab Muslims as not genuine Muslims
• Azerbaijan - a frontier zone
• gradual integration into new Islamic community
• Incorporation of Albanian church into Armenian
Gregorian Church
• gradual Gregorianization and Armenianization of
Albanians
The Umayyad Empire
 Co nqu ero rs an d the Co nqu ere d
–migration po licy

•Othman’s reign – 1st Arab settlements

•No serious clashes between locals and migrants during the 1st stage of
migration
•Ali’s reign – the most largest wave of resettlement
•regular and systematic migration policy
•Resettlement in the strategic regions
•Arabs regionalism and tribalism
•Constant clashes between Southern and Northern Arabs
 Conquerors and the Conquered – migration policy

Reasons for migration:

Islamization and Arabization
Social support for conquerors
 freed the state treasure from wastes (pensions)
Strengthening of Caliphate authority in conquered regions
Defeat of possible uprisings and revolts

• Semitisation or Arabization of Azerbaijan did not happen unlike Egypt, Syria, Central Asia
• Azerbaijanization of Arab migrants who integrated into local culture and did not remain the
Arabic roots
 Conquerors and the Conquered – migration policy

What prevented Arabization of Azerbaijanis?

• strong ethnic and cultural identity

• retained their language and distinct culture even after becoming a predominantly Muslim
country
• Seljuk invasion
• Mongol flow
 Islamization of Azerbaijan

• Early advance of Islam went hand in hand with the military expansion
• Arab rule did not immediately mean Islamization of population
• Early Arab toleration toward Christian Albanians and Zoroastrians
• Islam as mainly Arab affair
• Arabs were not able yet fully accustomed to non-Arab Muslims
• Spread of Islam did not necessarily mean the conversion of the population into orthodox
Islamic belief
• Syncretistic (combined) mix of pre-Islamic religious beliefs
 Islamization of Azerbaijan

• 2nd half of 7th cent – rise of tensions in Muslim world

• split between Sunni and Shia wings of Islam
• division of Islam community - purely political and ideological
• non-Arab ethnicities mixed the split with their indigenous culture
• mid of 8th cent Islam - more cosmopolitan and rapidly expand
 Shiism & Sunnism

• Sunnis believe that First Caliphs were
Rightly Guided
• Muslims should follow Sunna or
Muhammad’s example
• Accuse Shias of being distorted passages
of Qur’an
• Shias believe that Ali, the prophet’s
son– in–law, should have succeed
Muhammad
• Do not recognize the Sunna and
consider that all Muslim rulers
should be descended from
Muhammad
• Accuse Sunnis of being distorted
passages of Qur’an
 Reasons for accepting the Islam
• Specific forms of Islamization of Azerbaijan are still questioned
• Forcible or peaceful?
• Humanistic religion
• Religious tolerance toward Christians & Jews – Ahl-Al-Kitab
• Equality of believers in terms of race, class, and wealth
• Final peace and stability brought by Arabs
• Avoid paying the Jizya – head tax for non-Muslims
• only Muslims could own Muslim slaves or indentured servants;
• Privileges to Zoroastrians
 Azerbaijani model of Islamization

• Azerbaijani syncretism - Zoroastrian, Christian, and Shamanistic practices had evolved in

Azerbaijan over the centuries,

• the emergence of Islam as one of additional component to the mix of beliefs

• Azerbaijani Muslims as a part of umma and differentiation from other Muslims
• Differences between religious and ethnic self-awareness of Azerbaijanis
• This tendency towards syncretism and mysticism explains why most of Azerbaijan
gradually came to adopt the Shi’a version of Islam

• Shiism was considerably more tolerant to mysticism

 Impact of Islamization

• Conversion to Islam - significant turning point in Azerbaijani historical destiny

• Accelerated the process of integration of the society in one unit and formation of unit
traditions

• Islamization influenced the Azerbaijani ethnic identity and formed new ethnic system
• Traditional division into Sunnism and Shiism
• Islam stimulated the formation of unique ethnicity and language
• Religious unity among Turkic and non-Turkic ethnic communities
 Abbasids period

• Abbasid first allied with Shia, non-Arab Muslims – Mawalis against Umayyads
• The replacement of Umayyads by Abbasids – more that the change of dynasty
• The turning point and revolution in Islamic history
• International empire, emphasizing membership in umma rather than Arab nationality
• Inclusion policy of Abbasids
• Abbasids tried to bind together diverse ethnic elements of the Caliphate
• Equal rights for non-Arab Muslims
• Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids later had alienated Mawali, Iranian
bureaucrats and Shia sects
 Abbasid period. Rise of anti-Arabic movements

• Harun ar Rashid’s deviation from Abbasid’s national policy

• Discrimination of non-Arabs
• Persecution of Shi'ites and their leaders by orthodox Sunni Abbasids
• Harsh tax policy and extreme economical exploitation
• Azerbaijan - as an lawless frontier zone
• Rise of anti-Caliphate movements and uprisings
 Khurramit revolts

• Khurramits doctrine: “principle of the universe” in which Light (good) part got rub out
and turned into Darkness”

• Sectarian movements of syncretic nature – Zoroastrianism, neo-Mazdakism and Shiism

• resisted assimilation into Sunni Islam
• rooted in conflicts of class interests and in economic difficulties
• Khurrami communities and Abu Muslim
 Khurramits revolts

• Abu Muslim as Khurramits’ Imam, prophet, an incarnation of the divine spirit

• Abu Muslim - symbol of anti-Arab domination and figurehead of Khurramiyya
• Abu Muslim – the architect of Abbasids victory was put to death by caliph Al Mansur
• Khurramits revolts protesting the execution of Abu Muslim
• 755 – 1st anti-Arab Khurrami revolt led by Sindbad
• 766-779 - Khurramits movements led by Ustad Sis, Al Muganna, Muhammira
 Khurramits movement led by Babak

• the most serious of Khurramits movements by its extent, duration,

leadership and cohesion
• Muhammira – practiced the wearing of red clothes
• Babak - political and military leader of anti-Arabic nativist
movement
• Khurramits stir up existing socio-religious discontent and
heterodoxy
• Politically oriented religious movement
• Social equality
• Aimed to overthrow Caliphate power and to restore the
independence of Azerbaijan
• Anti-Arabic feeling of Azerbaijani national sentiment and
preservation of Azerbaijani distinct identity
 Sources about Babak

• Main sources about Khurramits –Arabic

sources
• Persian sources
• Greek sources
• Soviet historiography
• Modern national and western
historiography
 Etymology of the word “khurram”
Interpretations of “Khurram” etymology:
• “Khurram” as the name of Khurram province near Ardabil (9-10th cent. sources)
• Khurram – the name of Babak’s wife
• “Khurram” – cheerful, immoral, joyous, godless people (Arabic sources)
• “Khurram” derives from “khur” or “khvar” – sun and holy fire as a symbols of
Zoroastrianism (Z. Bunyatov)
 Khurramits ideological doctrine
• a sense of identity separate from Persians and Arabs,
• divine incarnation of Abu Muslim: was not really dead and would return to his people
• Syncretism – Zoroastrianism, Neo-Mazdakism and Shiism
• Khurramits’ Shia Imamate – divine incarnation and human reincarnation

• Khurramits as genuine Muslims – Sunni Muslims (mosques in Khurramites villages, reading

and teaching of Quran in Khurramit interpretation)
 Khurramits

• Political turmoil and civil war in Caliphate used by Khurramits

• waging an effective war against the most powerful army of the Middle East,
• alliance with Byzantine against a common enemy – Arabs
• Babak’s position astride the northern trade routes made him dangerous enemy
• defeated Abbasid armies much larger than his own (Arab losses about 225,500 soldiers)
• Caliph Mutasim’s general improvement of empire’s security
• Khurramits victories forced Caliph shift his sights from Anatolia to the Caucasus
 Turning point

• Al-Mutasim appeal to Afshin for assistance in defeat of Babak

• Khurramits, Afshin and Byzantine triangle - secret anti-Caliph negotiations
• anti-Khurramit campaign prolongation by Afshin and failure of negotiations
• Caliphs became suspicious of Afshin anti-caliph’s plot
• Caliph pardoned Babak and Babak’s refusal to serve for Caliph
• Afshin’s fear to be discredited in the eyes of Caliph
• the final blow to Khurramites
• Caliph’s task accomplishment by an act of betrayal of Babak by ibn Sumbat
• Babak’s capture and execution
Afshin and Babak. Balami’s Tarikhnama
 Aftermath

• In spite of defeat, Khurramits did not disappear from the historical arena
• Khurramits unsuccessfully manifested themselves until X-XII century
• 16,000 Khurramits enrollment in Byzans army under Zoroastrian Christianized Nasr
(Theophobos)
• integration of Christianized Khurramits into Greek-Orthodox society
• Khurramites’ Pesrian Turma (military division in Byzans army)
• After being defeated by Abbasids, Khurramites secretly declared Theophobos as new
Byzantine emperor
• Theophobos negotiations with Theophilos and full amnesty for Khurramits
• Khurramits - as defenders of eastern borders of Byzantine from Abbasids
 Khurramits legacy

• The significant step towards the formation of Azerbaijani national identity

• the 1st manifestation of Azerbaijanis ethnic and cultural differences from conquerors
• Khurramits’ divine incarnation and human reincarnation later appeared in Hurufism,
Bektashism, Qizilbashes, Sufism and Twelvier Imam Shiism (Safavids)

• One of the reasons of Caliphate decline

Arabic-Muslim culture combined and preserved the traditions of many
peoples and also advanced learning in a variety of areas

Society
City life

Muslim Culture
Muslim culture

Science Arts and

and math literature
 Arabic – Muslim culture
• creation of Arabian Caliphate promoted trade, economic and cultural connections between
its regions,
• the intensive growth of cities, the prosperity of crafts and the science
• development of astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and geometry
• a mutual enrichment of science among Arabian, Iranian, Turkic and Greek scientific
thoughts
• Golden Age of Abbasids
 Arabic – Muslim culture
• Arabic – Muslim culture of 8-10th centuries – the blend of Arab, Turkic, and Persian
traditions
• Islam - connected a range of various nations with different languages, races, cultures,
lifestyles, religions
• Islam as a set of common cultural and legal norms
• Islamization of Azerbaijani population,
• adoption of Arabic writing
• first poetry creations of Azerbaijanis in Arabic
Historical background of Islam in
Azerbaijan
Stages of Islamization
 Historical background of Islam

• Spread of Islam in Azerbaijan – approximately mid if the 7th century

• Religious diversity before Islam - heathenism, idolatry, shamanism, Christianity and
Zoroastrianism

• Islamization – long, gradual, complicated, contradictory and diverse process

• Formation of religious identities – dynamic and complex process
• Islamization has gone through several stages in Azerbaijan
 1st stage – Arabs reign. Dissemination of Islam

• progress of Islam, overthrow of Albania and loss of Albanian church independence

• Establishment of Islamic rule in Azerbaijan
• Islamization of locals : ruling elite, merchants and artisans accepted Islam
to get privileges granted by Arabs
• No mosques were built yet, ancient temples and churches became useless because
of spread of Islam
 2nd stage - Arabs reign. Khurramits

• Babek's (816-838) anti-Arabic revolt with mixed elements of Shiism, Neo-Mazdakism and
Zoroastrianism
• Idolatry and Zoroastrianism lost their actuality, Judaism survived
• The consciousness of belonging to Islam strengthened, but ethnic identity had not been lost
• The theosophy of Islam developed in the borderline regions
• Intensification of radical Shiism
 3rd stage – Rise of Islamic fictions

• Formation of conflicting feudal Azerbaijani states of 9-11th centuries

• Shiism and Sunnis - principle religious trends
• rival factions of Islamic belief: Zaidiyyah and Ismail Shiism, Hanafi and Shafii Sunnism:

 Zaidiyyah –Imam Zaid does not recognize a person as imam until he rebels against tyrants
 Ismailli - recognize Aga Khan as hereditary Imam in direct descent from Muhammad
 Hanafiyyah school- the 1st of the orthodox Sunni schools; religious guidance – Qiyas
 Shafiism – predominantly rely on Quran and hadiths for Sharia; religious guidance - Ijma
 Sufism - mystical Islamic belief, finding the truth of divine love and knowledge through
personal experience of Allah
 4th stage - 1st turmoil

• Seldjugs invasion (mid of 11th -mid 13th centuries)

• relative religious stability for next 200 years
• Seljuqs championed the Hanafi version of Sunni Islam by making it the dominant official
religion
• Seljuq Toghrul grew into the de-facto ruler of the Muslim world and obtained the official
title of Sultan from Abbasid Caliph
• Sunnis strengthened; position of Shiism weakened.
• Atabeys and Shirvanshahs managed to protect Islam from the pressure of Christianity
 5th stage – Major setback
• 13-14th centuries - Mongolian conquest
• In mid of the 13th cent Mongols gradually adopted Islam – religion of their subjects
• Ghazan khan’s conversion to Sunni Islam, his brother Oljaytu embraces Shiism
• Shia Islam stayed preferred religion by Chobanid and Jalairid dynasties
• Mongol invasion completed doctrine of Shia Islam emerge and Turkification of Azerbaijani
population
• Timur’s invasion – further strengthening of Hanafi Sunni Islam position
• Hurufism - the radical movement form the mainstream Shiism founded by Naimi (died in
1394)
 6th stage – 2nd turmoil
• Major changes in 16th cent by Ismail Safavi and rise of Safavis adherent to Twelvier Shiism
• “Shiization” of islam, official declaration of Shiism as the state religion - political act
• Shiism has shaped Azerbaijan cultural traditions and intellectual development
• Azerbaijan as the frontline between Shia Safavids and Sunni Ottomans
• Shiism distinguished Azerbaijanis from other Muslims of the region
• division of Azerbaijani population to the north of Araz river into Shias and Sunnis
• Chaldiran defeat of Safavis led to the further spread of Sunnism in Middle East
 7th stage – Reconciliation

• Azerbaijani Sunnis were followers of Hanafi and Shafi schools

• The majority of mountain people speaking native Caucasian languages followed Shafi
branch of Sunnism
• 18th century - Nadir shah’s major attempt to reconcile Shiism and Sunnism
• Nadir’s religious reforms aimed at easing differences between Sunnis and Shias
• Nadir shah as non religious person attempt to limit the potential Sunni-Shiite conflict to
interfere with his empire-building dreams
• Nadir shah’s “Jafarism as 5th official madhhab (school of Islam)
 8th stage – important milestone
Khanates and Russian imperial stage

• establishment of Khanates after Nadir’s assassination

• Wars for the Caucasus, establishment of Russian rule in Azerbaijan
• Dependency, colony and organic merger
• Russians had to deal with Shia Muslims for the 1st time
• Russians considered Sunnism more hostile (Sunni-dominated North Caucasus revolts)
• Russian authorities forced Azerbaijani Sunnis to move to Ottoman empire
• Sunnis’ deportation shifted the centuries old balance of Sunnis and Shias in Azerbaijan
on a favor of Shias
 9th stage - From religious to national id entity Secularization

• Rise of national liberation movement in Azerbaijan

• Emergence of Azerbaijani political elite and intelligentsiya with secular education
• Agitation of secularism and anti-clerical propaganda
• Secularization during ADR (1918-1920) - adoption of secular courts and rejection of
forming the government on the basis of sharia
• ADR leaders shaped religious doctrine to national political authorities
• Reconciliation of Sunnis and Shias during ADR
 10th stage – Soviets atheism and Islam
• In spite of Soviet atheistic propaganda Islam retained its strength among the population
• Bolsheviks’ efforts to guarantee religious freedom and national rights in early stage of
Sovietization
• Shiism as a subversive teaching of “Persian design”; anti Shiism campaigns
• 1927 - Stalin’s antireligious campaigns - “Witch hunt”
• Slight religious revival in war and post war years
• Soviets failed to destroy Azerbaijanis’ Muslim identity
 11th stage – Islamic revival and Re-Islamization
• Public revival of Islam and re-Islamization in post-Soviet times
• Majority of Azerbaijanis lacked the elementary understanding of Islamic practice, however
identified themselves with Muslims
• Islam did not become the most powerful identity in Azerbaijan
• Muslim population of Azerbaijan: 85% Shi'a and 15% Sunni;
• Traditional split did not lead to hostility between Azerbaijani Sunnis and Shias
• Secular character of Azerbaijani society remain very strong and dominan
• Azerbaijanis appreciate Islamic aspect of their identity as well as secular achievements
 Rise of Seljuks
• Seljuks – nomadic horsemen, originated from Qynyk branch of Oghuz Turks
• Known as Guzz or Oghuz, later Turkoman
• Lived on the periphery of the Muslim world, to the north of Caspian and Aral Seas
• Around 10th century – Seljuks abandoned shamanism for Islam
• consolidation of Oghuz and other Turkish tribes under Seljuks leadership
• Clashed with Islamic empires
• 10th century – conversions and migration to Abbasid Caliphate
• Migration under the leadership of Seljuk
• The Seljuk huge empire - from western China to the Mediterranean Sea
 Seljuks in Azerbaijan
• 1040 - Dandakan victory as a turning point for Seljuks and the Middle East
• There was no longer any powerful state that could block Seljuks from entering into the
Middle East
• 1042 – Seljuk invasion of strategically important city of Rey and Seljuks march to Front
Asia and Caucasus
• 1054 – Iran and Southern Azerbaijan became the part of Seluks empire
• 1055 – Seljuks overpowered Abbāsids
• 1040-1220 – Seljuks period in Islamic history
• strengthening of frontiers with Byzantine
• the vassal dependence of the local governors of Azerbaijan and Georgia on Seljuks
 Azerbaijan and Seljuks

• Azerbaijani feudal states: Shirvanshahs, Ravvadids and Shaddadids

• 1062 – campaigns of Seljuk Alp Arslan to the South Caucasus
• End of Azerbaijani state independence and vassalage period
• Only Shaddadids – supporters of Seljuks, extended their borders at the expense of
Shirvanshahs and Georgian lands
• Establishment of Seljuks supremacy in South Caucasus, Asia Minor and Syria
• Seljuks defeated Byzantine and eliminated Byzantine threat
• Empire reached its height during the reign of Malik shah when the South Azerbaijan was
completely included to the empire
Impact of Seljuks
• crucial role in Azerbaijan history
• Ethnically, linguistically and religiously related to Azerbaijanis
• End of İslamization
• Strengthening of Turkicization
• Prevention of Arabization
• Completion of the formation of Azerbaijani as a nation
• 200 years religious stability
• Azerbaijani Turkic language - main source of communication
• ancestors of the Western Turks – the present-day Azerbaijanis, Turks and Turkmens
 Impact of Seljuks

• Great supporters of Sunni interpretation of Islam

• Turkic and Persian culture flourishing
• revival and reunion to Islamic civilization hitherto dominated by Arabs and Persians
• Seljuks added a 3rd nation after Arabs and Persians to dominant races of Islam
• Prolonged the life of declining Arabic caliphate for two centuries
• Put to an end the political domination of Arabs in Near East
• Seljuks tore Asia Minor away from Christendom
• Turkic-Islamic victory over Christian block
• undertook the remarkable counter-offensive of The Crusades
• Opened the path to the later Ottoman invasion of Europe
 Weakening and decline

• Succession problems
• withstand divisions within its own family dynasty and rebellions by competing tribes
• Rise of political confrontation between caliphs and Seljuk sultans
• Emergence of Atabey system
• Wars and conflicts
• End of 120 years existence of the Great Seljuk Empire
• Seljuk empire – one of more short-lived empires
• cosmopolitan multicultural age of terrific artistic and intellectual
 Post- Seljuk period. Atabeys and Shirvanshahs

• Establishment of Eldeniz Atabays state and period of reviving of Shirvanshahs state

• Atabays state – 1136-1225
• Guardians; father lord in Turkish; Turkic Slave- commanders; ‘sovereign’
• Atabeys’ area was the part of former Iraqi Seljuk Sultanate
• Title of “the Great Atabay”, Azam
• Unification of Azerbaijani territories
• State borders from the Caucasus to the Persian Gulf
• Successful continuation of Atabay Eldeniz policy by his sons- heirs
• 1st half of the 13th century - weakening of the state
• struggle against Mongols and Jalaladdin
 Post - Seljuk period. Atabeys and Shirvanshahs

• No brake of Azerbaijani statehood traditions during Seljukids reign

• Although Shirvanshahs subdued to Seljuks, their power was still strong in north
Azerbaijan
• end of the 12th – 1st half of the 13th cent- restoration of Shirvanshahs independent rule
• Attempted to preserve their relations with powerful Seljuks
• Marriage diplomacy with Georgian Bagratiuni kingdom
• Economic growth of Shirvan state
• Period of independence
 Post - Seljuk period. Atabeys and Shirvanshahs

• great role of Shirvanshahs and Eldeniz states in ethnic-political history of Azerbaijanis

• continuation and reinforcement of state traditions of Azerbaijanis
• Enhancement of economical, political and cultural life of the country
• Production, trade, education ad culture development
• Domain of Azerbaijani – Turkic language
• “Golden Age” of Azerbaijani culture