RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Over the years there have been plenty

of discussions and arguments about
research methodology and the theory
of how inquiry should proceed.
Problems, needs, new knowledge are mostly
the initiating forces behind research.

Identifying a problem situation is the first

essential step in conducting research.
There are plenty of phenomena which give you
a rich variety of topics for research.

Your choice of the topic may depend on some

criteria:
 Basic Considerations in
Selecting a Problem
Relevance
Is the research topic can generate new information
and knowledge about a phenomenon?
Can it offer insights on how a problem can be
solved or a need can be addressed?
Your topic is relevant if it promises to provide new
information, explanations, refine theoretical
formulations, and improve understanding of given
phenomena and problems.
 Basic Considerations in
Selecting a Problem
Personal interests
Your own wishes, needs and interests may
influence the selection of a topic for
research.
Feasibility
availability of relevant data, limits and
constraints of time and resources,
samples, manageability of research
methodology, competence of the
researcher
 Some sources of information
on a problem

incidence and prevalence of the event,

phenomenon or problem in question.

Geographical areas affected (urban/rural,

mountain/island areas)

 Unanswered questions
From the review of information on the problem, what
seem to be the unanswered questions about the
problem?
 Some sources of information
on a problem
Characteristics of population groups
Is the problem observable among the general
population or only among special populations,
such as the elderly, women, men, children,
etc.
Probable reasons for the problem.
A review of information on a problem
suggesting a number of probable
reasons why the problem exists.
Example
Gender role expectations exist for men and women in all
cultures. In general, women are perceived as wives, mothers
and homemakers, and femininity is strongly associated with
their nurturance and homemaker roles. Men on the other hand
are seen as husbands, fathers and breadwinners. Musculine
characteristics (being strong, tough, etc.) are associated with
men’s roles.
Women’s entry into employment or paid work however is
blurring the traditional division of work/responsibilities
between the sexes, as women are assuming some
breadwinning functions and men some domestic ones. These
changes are expected to influence the transmission of gender
role definitions to young girls and boys
Gender role expectations exist for
men and women in all cultures. In
general, women are perceived as
wives, mothers and homemakers, and
femininity is strongly associated with
their nurturance and homemaker roles.
Men on the other hand are seen as
husbands, fathers and breadwinners.
Musculine characteristics (being
strong, tough, etc.) are associated with
men’s roles.
Women’s entry into employment
or paid work however is blurring the
traditional division of
work/responsibilities between the
sexes, as women are assuming some
breadwinning functions and men some
domestic ones. These changes are
expected to influence the transmission
of gender role definitions to young
girls and boys
Research Questions
1. To what extent do today’s families
adhere to the traditional, clear-cut
division of women’s and men’s
roles and responsibilities?
2. Do couples in non-traditional
arrangements (ie. , where wife is
gainfully employed) practice more
gender
crossing-roles/responsibilities
than couples in traditional
arrangements ( ie. wife is a
fulltime homemaker)?
3. How do the child-rearing practices
and attitudes of parents towards
their sons and daughters compare
in traditional and non-traditional
household arrangements?
 Research Questions Hypotheses
1. To what extent do today’s families
adhere to the traditional, clear-cut
1. There is no significant
division of women’s and men’s roles difference on the child-
and responsibilities? rearing practices of parents
towards their sons and
2. Do couples in non-traditional daughters in traditional and
arrangements (ie. , where wife is non-traditional household
gainfully employed) practice more
arrangements.
gender
crossing-roles/responsibilities than
couples in traditional arrangements (
ie. wife is a fulltime homemaker)?
2. There is no significant
difference on the attitude of
parents towards their sons
3. How do the child-rearing practices
and attitudes of parents towards and daughters in traditional
their sons and daughters compare in and non-traditional
traditional and non-traditional household arrangements.
household arrangements?
3.
After formulating the research problem and
research questions, the researcher’s next work is to
plan systematically how to solve the research
problem.
 Research methodology presents the research
design, research locale, samples and sampling
procedure, instruments in gathering data, procedure
of data collection, and data analysis.
 Research Design and Method
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for the collection and analysis of
data in a manner that is relevant to and will
best address the research purpose
Technically, research methods refer to the
methods or techniques for data collection and
data analysis.
A given research design can employ not just
one but a combination or a variety of methods
for collecting and analyzing data.
The research design and method depend on the
Basic Research Designs

approach to research- quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative researches involve the generation of

data in quantitative form (numbers) which can be
subjected to quantitative analysis in a formal and
rigid fashion.
Basic Research Designs
Qualitative research is by definition
exploratory. It is used to get deeper into
the issues of interest and explore nuances
related to the problem at hand. Qualitative
researches study things in their natural
settings, attempting to interpret
phenomenon.
 Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Qualitative research Quantitative Research
Units of Comparison
Nature exploratory Descriptive or causal
Design The design emerges as the All aspects of the study are
study unfolds. carefully designed before data
is collected.
qualitative – non-numeric, Quantitative – numeric,
Nature of data descriptive words, pictures countable,
and objects .
Purposive sampling Random sampling
Selection of Samples Small Sample Large Sample
Purposive sampling Random sampling
Selection of Samples Small Sample Large Sample
Researcher is the data Researcher uses tools, such as
Data Gathering Instrument gathering instrument questionnaires, tests, or
through equipment to collect numerical
Interview, Observation, data
Document Analysis
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

Units of Comparison Qualitative research Quantitative Research

No statistical tests Statistical tests are used
Data analysis is Is in the form of numbers
Data Analysis simultaneous with data and statistics.
collection The process is deductive.
The process is inductive. that is, researcher gathers
that is, researcher gathers data to test pre-specified
data to build concepts, constructs, and
concepts, ,hypotheses, or hypotheses that make up
theories. a theory
Less generalizable More generalizable
Results and Findings
Types of quantitative research designs
Descriptive research involves the description,
recording, analysis, interpretation of conditions that
presently exist. It involves some type of comparison,
contrast, and may attempt to discover a relationship
that exists between two variables.
 1. Historical Research or Historiography

Understanding the historical nature of a

phenomenon.

From the data gathered, the researcher draws

inferences, relates and establishes patterns, and
predict future trends.
Illustration
A researcher wishes to trace the history students
activism for purposes of determining possible ways of
harnessing it to desired goals. He therefore examines
documents and records related to students activism. He
also interviews various people who are knowledgeable
about students activism as well as people who have
been activists themselves.
2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive Research aims to describe the
current state of affairs at the time of the study.
It involves the description, recording, analysis,
interpretation of conditions that presently exist. It
involves some type of comparison, contrast, and
may attempt to discover a relationship that exists
between two variables.
Descriptive-normative research provides
descriptive information of the demographic nature of
the population.
Illustration
A researcher who is conducting a study on the profile
of administrators want to know their general personal
characteristics in terms of age, sex, IQ, language
spoken, civil status, educational qualification,
occupation and the like. He will therefore devise a
questionnaire which will measure the characteristics
and asks the respondents to respond to it.
Statistical treatment
Age - mean (measure of central tendency)
standard deviation
Sex - frequency, proportion or percentage
IQ - mean. Std dev.
Language spoken - frequency, percentage
Civil status - frequency, percentage
Descriptive-correlation surveys are designed to estimate
the extent to which different variables are related to each other
in the population of interest. The distinguished characteristic of
this design is the aim to estimate a relationship between two
variables.

Illustration
The previous example seeks to study the profile of
administrators in terms of age, sex, IQ, language spoken,
educational qualifications, etc.
Suppose also that the researcher wants to know the relationship
of these variables to management ability. He therefore selects the
variables that are logically related to management ability. He may
pick out the variables age sex, age, IQ, and establish the
relationship of these variables to management ability.
Statistical Treatment
Correlation Tests (test of relationship or
association between two variables)
Phi-coefficient/ chi-square (for two nominal
data)
Point-biserial correlation (for nominal and
interval data)
Spearman-rank correlation (for two ordinal data)
Pearson-Product Moment Correlation – (for two
interval data)
CORRELATION INTERPRETATION GUIDE

+1.00 ----- perfect positive correlation

very high positive correlation
+0.75---------- high positive correlation
+0.50--------- moderately small positive correlation
+0.25 very small positive correlation
0.00 ------------------------- no correlation
-0.25 very small negative correlation
-0.50 moderately small negative correlation
-0.75 high negative correlation
very high negative correlation
-1.00 perfect negative correlation
Descriptive-evaluative study has at least one
criterion so that in addition to description, some
evaluative judgment can be made about the
research situation.
Illustration
A researcher wants to conduct a study on the
implementation of a program or project. He assesses
the context, inputs to the program or project,
implementation of the program/project, and the out-put
or outcome of the program. An important phase of the
study is the evaluative judgment to be done about the
program/project (ie., continue the project/program as
planned, continue with some modifications, or terminate
the program/project).
Statistical Treatment

Measures of descriptive statistics (measures of

central tendency, measures of variability)

t-test for independent samples ( when comparing two

independent groups)

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

(when comparing three or more independent groups)
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Experimental research describes what will be when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated
(Stanley & Campbell).
The focus is on cause-effect relationships. Inferring
causality between two variables x and y requires
evidence which indicate a proper time order in the
occurrence of x and y.
The presumed cause x is conventionally designated
as the independent variable, and the presumed
effect, as the dependent variable.
Essentials of experimental research include
manipulation and control.

Control - an attempt to be made to hold all other

variables constant.
Examples: equal exposure to the independent
variable, selection of subjects/participants
 Effect is observed of the manipulation of the
independent variable on the dependent variable.
 Types of Experimental Research
Pre-experimental designs make use of evaluation
measures to determine the effects of the variable(s)
under study. However, external and internal validity
are not ensured because of the lack of controls.
 One-shot Case Study
X O

Illustration
A researcher wants to study the effect of the
programmed learning method (experimental variable
X) on the achievement of pupils in Mathematics. After
the pupils have been exposed to this method for six
(6 ) months, the researcher gives a test (posttest 0 )
to find out their achievement. He found out that the
maturity of the pupils evidenced 75% mastery of the
skills learned,
 One Group Pretest-Posttest Design
01 x 02

A researcher wants to study the effect of the programmed

learning method (experimental variable X) on the
achievement of pupils in Mathematics. He takes a group
of pupils and gives them pretest at the start . After the
pupils have been exposed to this method for six (6 )
months, the researcher gives a test (posttest 0 ) to find out
their achievement. The researcher then proceeds to
compare pretest and posttest scores to find out if there has
been a change in achievement after the pupils have gone
through the program.
Types of experimental research
True Experimental Designs
These designs evidence a greater degree of
control and greater assurance of internal and
external validity.
The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
R 01 X 02 Experimental G
R 01 02 Control G

Condition
The design can be used when experimental
situation allows for a laboratory set-up wherein
the researcher has much control of the situation.
Solomon Four-Group Design
A R 01 X 03
B R 02 04
A1 R X 05
B1 R 06

Condition:
The design is used when many cases are
available for the study
Advantages
This is more powerful than the pretest-posttest
control design.

The design enables the researcher to know the

extent to which the pretest affected the
experimental treatment.

The design removes the Hawthorne effect

(knowledge of being tested).
 Statistical Treatment

Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

Factor A reflects the differential effect of the two

methods.

Factor B indicates the differential effect of being

pretested versus not being pretested.
 Quasi-Experimental Designs
True experimental designs emphasize randomness in
group selection. But there are instances when random
selection and assignment is not possible.

 Time - Series Experiment consists of taking series of

evaluation and then introducing a variable (X) into the
system after which another series of evaluation is
made.

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
 Condition
The design is used when a control or comparison group
can not be included in the experiment.

Advantages
Administration of tests over time controls maturation and
history
The use of repeated testing helps to interpret the extent to
which history confounds effect of experimental variable
Disadvantage
Unavailability of data to serve as the multiple source of
pretest observations.
Types of qualitative research designs
1.Case Study
The process of conducting a case study begins with
the selection of the case.
The case might be unique or typical representative
of a common practice.
The selection depends upon what you want to learn
and the significance that knowledge might have for
extending theory or improving practice.
In the field of medicine, examples are cases of
individuals whose conditions are unusual.
Case studies of businesses that fail or succeed.
2 .Ethnography
An ethnographic study is one that focuses on human
society with the goal of describing and interpreting the
culture of a group.

Ethnographies re-create for the reader the shared beliefs,

practices, artifacts, folk knowledge, and behavior of some
group (Le Compre & Preissle, 1993)

The result of ethnographic inquiry is cultural description.

An ethnographic study involves extensive fieldwork
wherein one becomes intimately familiar to be important
with the group being studied.
Ethnography
Immersion in the site as a participant observer is
the primary method of data collection. Interviews
(formal and informal), analysis of documents,
records, and artifacts also constitute the data set
along with a field worker’s diary of each day’s
happenings, personal feelings, impressions or
insights with regard to some events.

Ethnography is thickly descriptive.

3. Phenomenological research
A phenomenological study seeks to understand the
essence and structure of a phenomenon.
Phenomenological research addresses questions about
common, everyday experience believed to be important
sociological or psychological phenomena of our time, or
typical of a group of people, and transitions that are
common or of contemporary interest.
The defining characteristics of a phenomenological
research is focus on describing the “essence” of a
phenomenon from the perspectives of those who
experience it.
The primary method of data collection is interview.
Documentary analysis can also be a source of data.
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory “is the study of experience from
the standpoint of those who live it” (Charmaz,
2000).
The researcher is the primary instrument of data
collection and analysis and the mode of inquiry is
inductive.
The end product of grounded theory study is the
building of a substantiate theory – theory that
emerges from or is “grounded” in the data.
Theory is “inductively” derived from the
phenomenon it represent.
Data come from interviews and observation.
 INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are tools used to gather data.

Method of Data Collection Instruments /Tools

Survey Questionnaire
Interview Interview guide
(structured or
unstructured)
Observation Observation Guide/
Checklist
Documentary
Analysis
Qualities of a Good Instrument
Validity
It refers to the extent or degree to which the
instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure.
An instrument is said to be valid if it serves its
purpose.

A table of specification (TOS) can be used to

facilitate the preparation of the instrument.
Qualities of a Good Instrument
Reliability
It refers to the consistency of responses
when re-tested using the same instrument or
two equivalent or parallel forms are given.
Methods of establishing the reliability the instrument

Test-retest method – Correlation Formula

Parallel or equivalent form method – Correlation

Formula

Internal consistency method - Kuder-Richardson

Formula 20 or Cronbach alpha

Split-half Method - Correlation, Spearman Rho

formula)
Developing A Questionnaire/Interview Guide

The instrument must contain items/questions that yield

the data needed to answer the research questions.
The questions developed need to be clear and simple.
One of the best ways to find out how good your
instrument is by field- testing ( try-out). Have the
instrument answered by people who have the same
characteristics as the intended respondents.
Their comments/feedbacks serve as basis in enriching
the questionnaire/interview guide.
 Developing a Rubric ( Scoring Guide)
A rubric is a set of guidelines in scoring different
levels of performance or qualities of products.

Its types are: holistic and analytic.

A rubric is holistic if it describes the overall

characteristics of a performance or product.

A rubric is analytic if it describes the quality of a

performance or product in relation to specific criteria.
Basic Steps in Rubric Development

1. Identify Criteria/Goals.

2. Determine Attributes of Good Performance.

3. Determine Points/Weights
(Examples: 1- 3, 0 – 5)
 Research Questions Analysis of Data
1. To what extent do today’s
1. The extent to which families adhere to
families adhere to the
the traditional, clear-cut division of
traditional, clear-cut division of
women’s and men’s roles and
women’s and men’s roles and responsibilities will be described using
responsibilities? measures of descriptive statistics like
frequencies, percentage, and weighted
2. Do couples in non-traditional mean.
arrangements (ie. , where wife is 2. The practices on gender crossing
gainfully employed) practice roles/responsibilities of couples in non-
more gender traditional and traditional
crossing-roles/responsibilities arrangements will be described using
than couples in traditional frequencies, percentage, and weighted
arrangements ( ie. wife is a mean.
fulltime homemaker)? 3. To test whether there exists significant
difference on the child-rearing
3. How do the child-rearing practices and attitudes of parents in
practices and attitudes of traditional and non-traditional
parents towards their sons and household arrangements towards their
daughters compare in traditional sons and daughters, t-test for
and non-traditional household independent samples will be used.
arrangements?
GOOD DAY!
Formulating the Research Problem
Problem Definition
Identifying a problem situation is the first essential
step in designing a research proposal.
Some sources of information on a problem
- The incidence and prevalence of the event,
phenomenon or problem in question.
- Geographical areas affected (urban/rural,
mountain/island areas)
Characteristics of population groups
Is the problem observable among the general
population or only among special populations, such as
the elderly, women, men, children, etc.
Probable reasons for the problem.
A review of information on a problem suggesting a
number of probable reasons why the problem exists.
 Unanswered questions
From the review of information on the problem, what
seem to be the unanswered questions about the
problem?

What aspects of the problem need to be researched

further?
 Some common mistakes in formulating
a research problem

AVOID
Collecting data without a well –defined research problem
or focus

Taking a “batch of data” that already exists and attempting

to fit meaningful research questions to it.
Defining objectives in such general or ambiguous
terms that interpretations and conclusions will be
arbitrary and invalid.

Pursuing a research topic without reviewing the

existing professional literature on the subject.
Formulating a research question
Research questions typically begin with the words
what, how, or why.
Research questions call attention to:
- What is it that you want to find out about a given
topic or research problem?
- The nature of your research inquiry or the purposes
of your study; and
- The kind of information or data that you need,
methodological approaches that you should pursue to
answer the research problem.
Tips on problem identification
and definition
Start with a simple statement of the problem situation.
Add details as you review the literature and investigate
the problem in greater depth
Move back to simplicity by focusing on the general
most important aspects of the problem that are
researchable.
 Examples of a research problem
Problem Statement
The phenomenal growth of overseas Filipino workers
(OFW) has been accompanied by an increase in the number of
single-parent households in the Philippines. Issues have been
raised about the potential impact this arrangement can have on
children and the family. One such speculation is that children in
households where only one parent is present while the other
works abroad, tend to lag behind in school performance
compared to those children in households where both parents
are present. It implies that children in the former type of
households lack the guidance, discipline, and motivation that
could only be engendered in the traditional Filipino household.
Research Questions
1. Is there really a marked difference in the school
performance between children from single-parent
households and those from two-parent households?
2. What factors may be responsible for the poor
performance of children in single-parent households?
Problem Statement
Websites are gaining popularity as classroom
resources. However, their effectiveness in assisting
students learned their lessons has yet to be documented
and established. An assessment of the pedagogical
effectiveness of using websites would be useful
considering the increasing number and use of websites
for educational/instruction purposes.
Research Questions
1. What objectives do schools have in introducing the use
of websites in their classrooms?
2. What subjects or course offerings currently male use of
websites? How long have these been use?
3. What have been the reactions of teachers to the use of
this new medium? Do they find these a useful tool in
teaching?
4. Do the students like/enjoy the websites and do they feel
they are able to learn more because of this additional
resource?
 Translating research problems and questions
into hypotheses
Hypotheses are testable propositions.
Translating research problems and questions into hypotheses is called for
when there is sufficient knowledge or information about a topic to warrant the
researcher to posit relationship between two factors or variables in the study.
For statistical testing purposes, research hypotheses are stated in their null
form.
Examples:

- There is no relationship between the use of websites in classrooms and

students’ rating of their subjects.
- There is no significant difference in the school performance of children from
single-parent and two-parent household.