11: Groundwater

 Water resources
 Geologic Agent
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth
Earth materials
• Rock
• Sediment (Soil)
• Fluids (Water)
Geologic processes
• Form,
• Transform and
• Distribute (redistribute) Earth materials
 Water is a primary agent of many (all?)
geologic processes
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Interactions go both ways

 GeologyGroundwater
 Geology controls flow
and availability of
groundwater because
 Groundwater flows
through the pore
spaces and/or
fractures
 Groundwater 
geologic processes.
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Geology controls groundwater flow

 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 E.g., Artesian (confined) aquifer

Sh
ale
Sa
nd
sto
ne
Sh
ale
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Geology controls groundwater flow

 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 Groundwater availability is controlled by geology.
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Geology controls groundwater flow

 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 Groundwater availability is controlled by geology.
 Subsurface contaminant
transport in is controlled
by geology.
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Groundwater controls geologic processes

 Igneous Rocks:
Groundwater controls water
content of magmas.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
Metasomatism (change in
composition) is controlled by
superheated pore fluids.
 Volcanism: Geysers are an
example of volcanic activity
interacting with groundwater.
Hydrogeology Defined
Water Earth Interactions


Groundwater controls geologic processes

 Landforms: Valley development and karst topography are
examples of groundwater geomorphology.
 Landslides: Groundwater controls slope failure.

 Earthquakes: Fluids control fracturing, fault movement,

lubrication and pressures.
Hydrogeology Subdisciplines
 Water resource evaluation
 What controls how much
groundwater is stored and can be
safely extracted?
 What controls where groundwater
comes from and where it flows?
 What controls natural water quality:
natural interactions with geological
materials control the chemistry of
groundwater?
 How can we protect groundwater
recharge areas and groundwater
reservoirs from contamination and
depletion?
Hydrogeology Subdisciplines
 Contaminant Hydrogeology
 Anthropogenic effects: degradation
of water quality due to human
influences (contamination)
 How fast are dissolved
contaminants carried by
groundwater?
 Transport pathways of
contaminants: Where are sources
of contamination impacting the
groundwater, where are the going
and what are the destinations?
 Remediation (clean-up) of
contaminants dissolved in the
groundwater.
Darcy’s Law
Answers the fundamental questions of hydrogeology.

 What controls:
 How much groundwater
flows?
 How fast groundwater Poten
tiome
tri
flows? Surfa c
ce
 Where groundwater
flows?
Darcy’s Law
Henry Darcy’s Experiment (Dijon, France 1856)
Darcy investigated ground water flow under controlled conditions

h1 h2 Q  h, Q  1 x , Q  A
A h
Q: Volumetric flow rate [L /T]
3

Q x A: Cross Sectional Area (Perp. to flow)

K: The proportionality constant is added
to form the following equation:
h  h : Hydraulic Gradient
x
h Slope = h/x
h1 ~ dh/dx Q  A h  Q   K A h
h x x
h2
x K units [L/T]
x1 x2 x
 Calculating Velocity with Darcy’s Law
 Q= Vw/t
 Q: volumetric flow rate in m3/sec
 Vw: Is the volume of water passing through area “a” during
t: the period of measurement (or unit time).
v


 Q= Vw/t = H∙W∙D/t = a∙v

 a: the area available to flow
 D: the distance traveled during t
Vw
 v : Average linear velocity
 In a porous medium: a = A∙n
 A: cross sectional area (perpendicular to flow)
 n: porous For media of porosity
 Q = A∙n∙v
 v = Q/(n∙A)=q/n
Darcy’s Law (cont.)

 Other useful forms of Darcy’sUsed

Lawfor calculating
Volumetric Flow Rate Volumes of groundwater
flowing during period of
time

Volumetric Flux Q Used for calculating

(a.k.a. Darcy Flux or A= Q given A
Specific discharge)
Ave. Linear
Q q Used for calculating
A.n = n = average velocity of
Velocity groundwater transport
(e.g., contaminant
Assumptions: Laminar, saturated flow
transport
 Darcy’s Law Application
 Settling Pond Example*
A company has installed two settling ponds to:
Settle suspended solids from effluent
Filter water before it discharges to stream
Damp flow surges
Questions to be addressed:
How much flow can Pond 1 receive
without overflowing? Q?
Pond 2
Pond 1
How long will water (contamination)
658
take to reach Pond 2 on average?v?
652
N How much contaminant mass will enter
Pond 2 (per unit time)?
0 5000 ft
M?

*This is a hypothetical example based on a composite of a few real cases

 Application (cont.)

Water flows between ponds through

Pond 1 Pond 2 the saturated fine sand barrier driven
by the head difference
1510 ft

Outfall
W

Overflow
Elev.= Elev.=
658.74 ft 652.23 ft
Sand x =186 Q? v? M?
h=6.51 ft K
b=8.56 ft
Contaminated
Pond x =186 ft
b
Clay x
Not to scale
Application (cont.)

 Develop your mathematical representation

(i.e., convert your conceptual model into a mathematical model)
 Formulate reasonable assumptions

Saturated flow (constant hydraulic conductivity)

Laminar flow (a fundamental Darcy’s Law assumption)
Parallel flow (so you can use 1-D Darcy’s law)
 Formulate a mathematical representation of your conceptual model that:

 Meets the assumptions and

 Addresses the objectives

Q? v? M? M = Q C
 Application (cont.)
 Collect data to complete your Conceptual Model and to
Set up your Mathematical Model
 The model determines the data to be collected
 Cross sectional area (A = w b)
 w: length perpendicular to flow h
 b: thickness of the permeable unit Q  K A Q?
 Hydraulic gradient (h/x) x
 h: difference in water level in ponds
 x: flow path length, width of barrier K h
v v?
 Hydraulic Parameters n x
 K: hydraulic tests and/or laboratory tests
 n: estimated from grainsize and/or laboratory tests M = Q C M?
 Sensitivity analysis
 Which parameters influence the results most strongly?
 Which parameter uncertainty lead to the most uncertainty in the results?
Ground Water Zones
 Degree of saturation
defines different soil
water zones
 Soil and Groundwater Zones
Unsaturated Zone:
Water in pendular
saturation
Caplillary Fringe:
Water is pulled above
the water table by
capilary suction
Water Table: where
fluid pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure
Saturated Zone:
Where all pores are
completely filled with water.
Phreatic Zone: Saturated zone below the water table
 Ground water and
the Water cycle
 Infiltration
 Infiltration capacity
 Overland flow
 Ground water
recharge
 GW flow
 GW discharge
Bedrock Hydrogeology
 Hydraulic
Conductivity
of bedrock is
controlled by

 Size of fracture openings

 Spacing of fractures
 Interconnectedness of fractures
Porosity and
Permeability
 Porosity: Percent of
volume that is void space.

 Sediment: Determined by
how tightly packed and how 30%
clean (silt and clay), (usually 5%
between 20 and 40%)

 Rock: Determined by size

and number of fractures
(most often very low, <5%) 1%
Porosity and
Permeability
 Permeability: Ease with
which water will flow through
a porous material
 Sediment: Proportional to
sediment size
 GravelExcellent Excellent
 SandGood
 SiltModerate
 ClayPoor
 Rock: Proportional to fracture
size and number. Can be good Poor
to excellent
Porosity and
Permeability
 Permeability is not
proportional to
porosity.

Table 11.1 30%

5%

1%
The Water Table

 Water table: the

surface
separating the
vadose zone
from the
saturated zone.
 Measured using
water level in well

Fig. 11.1
Ground-Water Flow
 Precipitation
 Infiltration
 Ground-water
recharge
 Ground-water flow
 Ground-water
discharge to
 Springs
 Streams and
 Wells
Ground-Water Flow
 Velocity is
proportional to
 Permeability
Fast (e.g., cm per day)
 Slope of the water
table
 Inversely
Proportional to
 porosity
Slow (e.g., mm per day)
Natural Water
Table Fluctuations
 Infiltration
 Recharges ground
water
 Raises water table
 Provides water to
springs, streams
and wells
 Reduction of
infiltration causes
water table to drop
Natural Water
Table Fluctuations
 Reduction of
infiltration causes
water table to drop
 Wells go dry
 Springs go dry
 Discharge of rivers
drops
 Artificial causes
 Pavement
 Drainage
Effects of
Pumping Wells
 Pumping wells
 Accelerates flow
near well
 May reverse
ground-water flow
 Causes water table
drawdown
 Forms a cone of
depression
Effects of
Pumping Wells
Gaining
Stream
 Pumping wells
 Accelerate flow
 Reverse flow Water Table
Drawdown
Low well
 Cause water Cone of Dry Spring
table drawdown Depression
Gaining
 Form cones of Stream Low well

depression Low river

Pumping well
Effects of
Dry well

Pumping Wells
 Continued water- Losing
Stream
Dry well

table drawdown
 May dry up
springs and wells
 May reverse flow
of rivers (and
may contaminate Dry well
aquifer) Dry river
 May dry up rivers
and wetlands
Ground-Water/
Surface-Water
Interactions
 Gaining streams
 Humid regions
 Wet season
 Loosing streams
 Humid regions, smaller
streams, dry season
 Arid regions
 Dry stream bed
Confined Aquifers
Confined Aquifers
Ground-Water Contamination
 Dissolved contamination travels with ground water flow

 Contamination can
be transported to
water supply
aquifers down flow

 Pumping will draw

contamination into
water supply
Ground-Water Contamination
 Leaking Gasoline
 Floats on water
table
 Dissolves in
ground water
 Transported by
ground water
 Contaminates
shallow aquifers
Ground-Water Contamination
 Dense solvents
 E.g., dry cleaning
fluid (TCE)
 Sinks past water
table
 Flows down the
slope of an
impermeable layer
 Contaminates
deeper portions of
aquifers
Ground-Water
Contamination
 Effects of pumping
 Accelerates ground water flow
toward well
 Captures contamination within
cone of depression
 May reverse ground water flow

 Can draw contamination up hill

 Will cause saltwater intrusion

Ground Water Action
 Ground water
chemically weathers
bedrock
 E.g., slightly acidic
ground water dissolves
limestone
 Caves are formed
 Permeability is increased
 Caves drain
 Speleothems form
Ground Water Action
 Karst Topography
 Caves  Disappearing streams
 Sink holes  Giant springs
 Karst valleys
 Ohio Groundwater Law
 1843: Acton v. Blundell
“English Rule”

The landowner can pump  1861: Frazier v. Brown

groundwater at any rate English Rule in Ohio
even if an adjoining
property owner were Groundwater is
harmed. “…occult and concealed…”
and legislation of its use is
“…practically impossible.”
Wisconsin Groundwater Law
1903: Huber v. Merkel
English Rule in Wisconsin
1974: Wisconsin v. Michels
Pipeline Constructors Inc.
 A property owner can
pump unlimited amounts English Rule Overturned
of groundwater,
 even with malicious harm  Landowners no longer have
to a neighbor. “an absolute right to use with
impunity all water that can be
pumped from the subsoil
underneath.”
English Rule Overturned in Ohio

1984: Cline v. American Aggregates

English Rule overturned in Ohio

 Justice Holmes: “Scientific

knowledge in the field of hydrology
has advanced in the past
decade…” so it
Today: Lingering effects
of English Rule
 “…can establish the cause and  It is very difficult to prove
effect relationship of the tapping of cause and effect to be
underground water to the existing
water level.” defensible in court.