ADVANCED PETROLEUM REFINING

ENGINEERING
7204CHE-4
by
Professor Hamed Nasser Ben Harharah
Chemical Engineering Departments
In
Engineering Faculty - King Khalid University
&
Faculty Engineering and Petroleum-

1445
Physical & Physicochemical
Properties of Petroleum
 STANDARD TESTES FOR MEASURMENT OF
PROPERTIES
These Properties are important in the
type, quality, pricing, refining, and second
processing of crude oil.
1. Density, Relative Density
ASTM1298 & Thermal Expansion
Coefficient ASTM 1093
2. API – Degree. ASTM 1298 & 287
3. Characterization Factors
4. Boiling Point Range ASTM-86,
5. Sulfur Content ASTM-1266 or 129
6. Molecular Weight & specific Volume.
7. Viscosity ASTM-445 or 88
8. Viscosity Index ASTM-2270
9. Carbon residue ASTM524 & 189
10. Cloud & Pour Points, ASTM 2500 & 97
11. Vapour Pressure, ASTM-323
12. Flash pint & Self-Ignition, ASTM-93 or
3828
13. Colour test ASTM 1500.
14. Thermal Conductivity ASTM 2717
15. Electrical conductivity ASTM 2624.
16. Refractive Index ASTM 174
17. Acidity, ASTM – 664These
18. Doctor test ASTM 4952
19. Aniline Point, ASTM-611
20. Smoke point, ASTM-1322
21. Softening point ASTM-36
22. Penetration point ASTM-5 , 217 &
1321
23. Heat properties.
24. Water test ASTM-1094
25. Electrical properties .
26. Octane number test ASTM 2699
&2700
27. Cetane number test ASTM 613
28. Surface Tension ASTM971
29. Optical Dispersion ASTM 1218
30. Solubility property
31. Salt Content
32. Salt content, ASTM – 3230 (?lb
NaCl/1000 bbl)
33. Metals content, EPA Method 3040
These include Ni, V, Ag, Hg, Na,
and Ca
34. Sediment and Water, ASTM D – 96
1- Density (ρ):
It is the mass of unit volume of a material at a
specified temperature.

Where X- Volume fraction

Density is an important property in nature or
quality of crude oil and pricing.
crude oil which has low density is characterized by
high quality, not complex in refining, rich of fuels
(such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel), and
therefore characterized by a higher price.
Density of petroleum and its products is
determined by Hydrometers ASTM 1298,
pycnometer ASTM 1217, or hydrostatic balance
which depends on the floating principle.
Density at the compound level, the higher the
carbon atoms, the greater the density. Also, Density
has a relation to the type and structure of
hydrocarbon grope. It increases from paraffin,
naphthenes to aromatics (fig. 24):
Coefficient of thermal expansion and its effect on density
We know that the density of crude oils or any liquid is a function of
temperature, there being the expansion of any substance as the
temperature rises therefore a reduction in the density (T↑ρ↓(.
The quantity relevant to this are coefficients of thermal expansion:

Or
Unit of α is ˚C⁻¹ & units of β is K⁻¹ .
Equation of α is exacted for density calculation of fuel fractions,
while equation of β is exacted for lube fractions. If you have two T
can calculate second density by the following equations:

𝒍𝒏 𝝆 𝑻 =𝒍𝒏 𝝆𝑻 + 𝜷 ( 𝑻 𝟏 −𝑻 𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏

•Light distillers have a higher thermal expansion

coefficient than heavy distillates.
•During the initial stages of heating, the
expansion is slow while accelerating during the
high heating stages.
•When a boiling point is equal to two distillates,
this distillation containing a high proportion of
paraffins (API) has a higher thermal expansion
coefficient than the aromatic distilled distillate.
•Figure 25, shows curves of distillates. In our
view, each curve has a nearly constant tendency
during the first phase of heating and then
increases during the next stage of heating.
Relative Density (Specific Gravity): ASTM 1298
It is density of product dividing by the density of standard
substance (water) at the same temperature 60 °F (15.56 °C).

Water density at 60⁰F is 0.99904 g/cm³. S.G is without units.

What are the benefits of density and specific density?
1. One of the variables that determines the chemical nature of oil
or oil derivative
2. Contribute to the calculation of refining and processing
equipment
3. Contribute to determining the origin and quality of crude oil or
product
4. An important measure in practically controlling product quality.
5. Enter in the calculation of factors and molecular weights.
2- API – Degree (API gravity):
API is higher for lighter crudes and lower for heavy crudes, having
therefore the reciprocal of the relative density in its equation.

Most types of crude oil have a relative density between 0.80 -

0.98, which corresponds to API grades between 13-46.
 Fig. 26. Specific gravity of
intermediate base oil & its
derivatives based on average
temperature change.

3. Characterization Factors:
There are several correlations between yield and the aromaticity and
paraffinicity of crude oils, but the two most widely used are:
The UOP or Watson ‘‘characterization factor’’ (KW)

and the U.S. Bureau of Mines ‘‘correlation index’’ (CI).

Where both mean average boiling point, °R

Kw CI
Aromatic base9.5-11 44-100
Naphtenic base 10.5-12 12.7-57
Paraffinic base 11.9-13 0-33
S. Gravity Fraction

0.62 - 0.70 L. Gasoline

0.7 - 0.77 H. Gasoline

0.78 - 0.83 Kerosene

0.84 - 0.88 Diesel

0.88 - 0.99 Lub Dist.

0.8 - 0.98 Crude Oil

4. Boiling Point Ranges:
The boiling point is the degree to which the vapor pressure is equal to the
external or operation pressure.
The boiling ranges of the crude give an indication of the quantities of the
various products.
The most useful type of distillation is known as a True Boiling point distillation.
The crude distillation range has to be correlated with ASTM distillations
because product specifications are generally based on the simple ASTM
distillation tests D-86 and D-1160.

Figure shows how to:

1. do distillation.
2. find IBP.
3. find bp of any chosen % of vol.
4. find final boiling point.
5. Sulfur Content, wt%
Crudes with less than 0.2%S called sweet. But crude with greater
than 0.5%S called sour (acidic). Also, if H₂S gas arrived 400ppm ,the
crude be classified as acidic. Acidity is measured by ASTM664.
Acid oil generally requires special treatment more expensive than
that which contains lower sulfur.
Sulfur can be determined by combustion in lamp (ASTM1266),
Cuartiz Tube (IP65/66), Bomb (ASTM129) in Wt%, and doing
titration for 10 grams of the experiment product by sodium
hydroxide with normality 16.03.

Fig 27. lamp apparatus to determine the sulfur

content. Unit to examine five samples simultaneously

 N = number of mole equivalents per 1L of solution.

 Normality is specifically used for acids and bases.
Example:
 For acidic n is the number of H⁺ ions, namely 1 M H2SO4
solution contains 2 N H2SO4 solution.
 For a basic n is the number of OH- ions, namely 1 M Ca(OH)2
solution is the same as a 2 N Ca(OH)2 solution.
6. Molecular Weight:
The Molecular weight is average of the crude & its derivatives , due to the
various compounds of them. Mw of petroleum about 1500g/mol. Can we
calculate average Mw by many of equations :
1)
Mwav. = (7K – 21.5) + (0.76 – 0.04K) tb.av + (0.0003 K – 0.00245 ) (tb.av)²
2)

3)

K-characterization factor value; tb.av in (⁰C);

X – mass fraction; Mw – molecular weight of the component.
7- Specific Volume:
specific volume is the substance's volume to its mass. It is the reciprocal
of density:
,
Knowledge of the molecular and specific volume is used in engineering
calculations to determine the size of the reactors and evaporation and
refining towers for liquids and vapors of petroleum products.
8. Viscosity:
Dynamitic Viscosity , units (poise)

Kinematic Viscosity (ν) , units (stoke)

1poise = 100 centi-poise, 1stok= 100 centi-stoke

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:
• Viscosity Decreases with increasing temperature
Lg . Lg (υt + 0,6) = A + B . Lg T
υt is kinematic viscosity (cSt) at T (K), A&B are constants depende on Product.
• Maximum viscosity of tar/FO for easy atomization in burners )25 cSt (. For easy
pumping 1200 cSt.
• High viscosity produces coarse drops, resulting formation of deposits in engine
& incomplete combustion.
• Diesel Low viscosity causes excessive leakage.
• Water kinematic viscosity at 20°C is 1mm²/s = 1 (cSt).

Capillary
Kinematic
Viscometer Saybolt Furol
Pipettes. Viscometer
ASTM 445 ASTM -D88
& 446
 SOME TYPICAL DYNAMIC
VISCOSITIES (cP at 20°C)
Air 0.02
Acetone 0.3
Methanol 0.6
Water 1
motor oil SAE 20 125
motor oil SAE 50 540
olive oil 84
corn oil 72
glycerin 1490

Fig. 33. Capillary Kinematic Viscometer Pipettes By ASTM 445 & 446
Fig. 34 Saybolt Furol Viscometer by ASTM -D88
Fig.35 Figure explains relationship between ambient
temperature and viscosity class for start-up of engine
 SAE20 SAE30 SAE40 SAE50

Fig. 36. shows color & speed of Steel Ball fall

(speed is inversely proportional to oil viscosity.
Faster through less viscous oil & Slower through
more viscous oil)
9. Viscosity Index (VI): ASTM-2270.
The viscosity index assesses the usable capacity of lubricating oils. When
the degree of change in viscosity is small at temperature changes, the
viscosity index becomes high, and then the oil is considered more quality.
A viscosity index is a number between 0 and 100 or more.
Paraffin compounds have the highest viscosity index, unlike poly-aromatic
compounds with short side chains.
The oils extracted from paraffin base oil have a high viscosity index for
their containment of paraffins, while the oils extracted from the
naphthene base oil have lower viscosity index, because they are free of
wax. VI Equation is:

Where L-kinematic viscosity of a worse standard oil , H-kinematic

viscosity of a good standard oil, U- Kinematic viscosity of the examined
oil, (all the three oils are measured at 37.8⁰C). L & H values ​are taken
from the tables in terms of examined oil at 100 ° C. The equation above is
for a viscosity index between 0-100. but for more than 100 should be use
the following equations:
 H L Kinematic H L Kinematic H L Kinematic
at at Viscosity, at at Viscosity, at at Viscosity,
37.8 37.8 mm2/s, 37.8 37.8 mm2/s, 37.8 37.8 mm2/s,
0
C 0
C at 1000C 0
C 0
C at 1000C 0
C 0
C at 1000C
863.0 2426 48 320.9 736.5 25 6.394 7.994 2
876.9 2473 48.5 328.8 758.2 25.4 9.063 11.45 2.5
890.9 2521 49 340.5 790.4 26 12.15 15.49 3
905.3 2570 49.5 348.4 812.8 26.4 15.66 20.09 3.5
919.6 2618 50 360.5 847.0 27 19.56 25.32 4
933.6 2667 50.5 368.3 869.0 27.4 23.81 31.96 4.5
948.2 2717 51 380.6 904.1 28 28.49 40.23 5
962.9 2767 51.5 388.8 927.6 28.4 33.34 49.09 5.5
977.5 2817 52 401.1 963.0 29 38.19 57.98 6
992.1 2867 52.5 409.5 987.4 29.4 43.18 67.12 6.5
1007 2918 53 421.7 1023 30 48.57 78.00 7
1021
1036
2969
3020
53.5
54
432.4
443.2
1055
1086
30.5
31
53.98
59.60
88.85
100.0
7.5
8.0 Kinematic Viscosity
1051 3073 54.5 454.0 1119 31.5 65.32 111.5 8.5
1066 3126 55 464.9 1151 32 71.10 123.3 9.0 Values of the Standard
1082 3180 55.5 475.9 1184 32.5 76.91 135.3 9.5
1097
1112
3233
3286
56
56.5
487.0
498.1
1217
1251
33
33.5
82.87
88.95
147.7
160.6
10
10.5
Oils at 37.8 ˚C and the
1127
1143
3340
3396
57
57.5
509.6
521.1
1286
1321
34
34.5
95.19
101.5
173.9
187.6
11.0
11.5 Tested Oil at 100 ˚C.
1159 3452 58 532.5 1356 35 108.0 201.9 12
1175 3507 58.5 544.0 1391 35.5 114.7 216.6 12.5
1190 3563 59 555.6 1427 36 121.5 231.9 13
1206 3619 59.5 567.1 1464 36.5 128.4 247.4 13.5
1222 3676 60 579.3 1501 37 135.4 263.3 14
1238 3734 60.5 591.3 1538 37.5 142.4 279.6 14.5
1254 3792 61 603.1 1575 38 149.7 296.5 15
1270 3850 61.5 615.0 1613 38.5 157.0 313.9 15.5
1286 3908 62 627.1 1651 39 164.6 331.9 16
1303 3966 62.5 639.2 1691 39.5 172.3 350.3 16.5
1319 4026 63 651.8 1730 40 180.2 369.4 17
1336 4084 63.5 664.2 1770 40.5 188.1 388.9 17.5
1352 4147 64 676.6 1810 41 196.2 408.6 18
1369 4207 64.5 689.1 1851 41.5 204.3 429.0 18.5
1386 4268 65 701.9 1892 42 212.7 449.9 19
1402 4329 65.5 714.9 1935 42.5 221.1 471.3 19.5
1419 4392 66 728.2 1978 43 229.5 493.2 20
1436 4455 66.5 741.3 2021 43.5 236.4 510.8 20.4
1454 4517 67 754.4 2064 44 247.1 538.4 21
1472 4580 67.5 767.6 2108 44.5 254.2 556.7 21.4
1488 4645 68 780.9 2152 45 264.9 585.2 22
1506 4709 68.5 794.5 2197 45.5 272.3 604.3 22.4
1523 4773 69 808.2 2243 46 283.3 633.6 23
1541 4839 69.5 821.9 2288 46.5 290.5 653.8 23.4
1558 4905 70 835.5 2333 47 301.8 683.9 24
849.2 2380 47.5 309.4 704.2 24.4
9- Carbon Residue ,Wt% Carbon residue is determined
by distillation to a coke residue (700-800⁰C)in the
absence of air. The carbon residue is related to the
asphalt content of the crude and to the amount of the
lubricating oil fraction that can be recovered. CCR incr.
then Asphaltene incr. The lower the amount of carbon
residue, the more valuable crude oil will be. Carbon
residue can be determined by Ramsbottom (RCR) or
Conradson (CCR) ASTM -524 and ASTM-189.
Conradson Apparatus

10. Cloud & Pour Points: ASTM 97

A cloud point is the temperature at which oil
becomes cloudy or hazy when oil is cooled at a
specified rate.
The pour point is the temperature at which oil
becomes semi-solid and loses its flow
characteristics. The pour point comes after the
cloud point at the constant cooling rate in the
same apparatus.
Cloud and pour points tell the behavior of fuel at
low temperatures. The benefit of the pour point
of the lube in the engine appears in startup &
transmission. It is an indicator of the relative
paraffinicity and aromaticity of the crude.
Generally, In crude oil a high pour point is
associated with a high paraffin content.
Pour points of crude oils vary between (-60 to
+30 °C.)
11-Vapour Pressure:
Pressure of liquid vapor is called
'saturated vapor pressure' or 'vapor
pressure' when it is in equilibrium with
the liquid phase. The vapor pressure is
determined by computationally or
laboratory ‘Reid Vapor Pressure Method
(RVP) ASTM 323‘. True Vapor Pressure is 5-
9%> RVP
Vapor pressure is critically important for
automotive and aviation gasolines,
affecting starting, warm-up, and tendency
to make "a vapor lock" with high weather
or operating temperatures. Maximum
vapor pressure limits for gasoline in some
areas considered as a measure of air
pollution control.
The benefit of knowledge of vapor
pressure, :you will know”:
1. Extent of evaporation of substances in
the petroleum derivative,
2. The percentage of light compounds,
3. Percentage of dissolved gases.
4. Calculation of fluid composition and
equilibrium steam
5. Design of distillation, evaporation and
condensation devices
6. Security precautions for reservoirs and
equipment subjected to high pressure
“high vaporizing”.
12-Flash Point: ASTM 92 & 93
It is temperature at which the oil must be heated under
prescribed conditions for sufficient vapor to be given off to
form an flammable mixture with air. Gasoline (-40 to +40),
Kerosene (26 to 60), Diesel (50 to 120), lube oil (130- 320), and
crude oil (-10 to +40) in C. The benefit is to determine the type
o
of blend & safe storage temperature limits.
,
Measuring apparatuses are Abel Closed Cup, Pensky – Martin’s
with open & closed cup; Cleveland with open & closed cup
tester. Tag Closed Tester.
Fire Point:
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which vapors ignite and
continue to burn for at least five seconds when the flame is
applied.
The fire point is 5 – 40⁰C higher than the flash point and is
measured in the same apparatus used for the determination of
the flash point.
Self Ignition point (auto-ignition) ASTM E659
It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel vapor ignites
when it touches the air only. Self-ignition point depends on the
chemical composition of the petroleum product. Paraffin have
the lowest grade, naphthenes – higher, while aromatics have a
highest. The degree of self-ignition exceeds the degree of flash
by several hundred temperatures. FP of Hexane is (-22.77˚c)
Self-ign. is(247 ˚c), FP of cyclohexane (-20˚c) & silf-ign. (270), FP
of benzene (-17.77) & silf-ign. (500), benzine 420-500, kerosene
290-380, diesel 290-370, crude oil 400⁰C.
Performance number of a fuel is related to its spontaneous
13-Ash content:
Amount of totally non combustible products. They are contaminants such as
dirt, sand, and rust. Of which solid ash compounds are formed, causing severe
abrasive wear in IC engine cylinder liners, high slag temperatures in fire tubes
and super heater tubes, and they are deposited on gas turbine blades.
14-Colour Test ASTM 1500:
Determination of the color of petroleum products is used for manufacturing
control purposes and is an important quality characteristic. In some cases, the
color may serve as an indication of the degree of refinement of the product or
its containment of resin and asphalt. The measuring device is called a
calorimeter.
Using a standard light source, a liquid sample is placed in the test container
and compared with colored glass disks/tubs ranging in value from 0.5 to 8.0.
When the sample falls between two criteria, the higher number is taken.
Colour Standard Scale Range
ASTM D 1500 or Wide range of petroleum products as lubricating 0.5 to 8 units
ASTM 6045 oils, heating oils & diesel fuel oils.
Saybolt Color Light colored petroleum products as jet fuels, -16 darkest to
ASTM D 6045 & 156 kerosene, white mineral oils, hydrocarbon +30 lightest
solvents, petroleum wax
15- Smoke Point: ASTM 1322
It is a measure of the tendency of liquid fuels to produce carbon
particles known as soot (incompletely combusted carbon particles).
The smoke point is measured as the maximum height, in millimeters,
of the smokeless flame of the fuel burning in a wick feed lamp.
The smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition:
Aromatic< naphthene < i-Paraffin <n-Paraffin.
This test method reflects a quality point for kerosene and jet fuel.
The sample is burned in an enclosed wick-fed lamp that is calibrated
daily against pure hydrocarbon blends of known smoke point. The
maximum height of flame that can be achieved with the test fuel
without smoking is determined to the nearest 0.5 mm.
The standard consider that the flam which less than 18 is bad, 22-25
better, and exceed 25mm is highest quality.

Pf, Nf, Ar – weight fraction of paraffin, naphthene, aromatics

respectively.
16- Aniline point: ASTM 611
Aniline is the lowest temperature at which the two equal
volumes of the petroleum product and the aniline
compound are fully mixed.
The aniline point helpes in the characterization of pure
hydrocarbons and in the analysis of samples. Paraffin
hydrocarbons show the highest values, naphthenes with
olefins-the middle boundary while aromatics show the
lowest values for being homogeneous with aniline.
In homologous series the aniline points increase with
increasing molecular weight.
The importance of aniline point is to contribute to the
calculation of:
1- Quantity of aromatics in diesel fuel and aviation fuel

Where T₁‚₂ before & after aromatic separation.

2- The net combustion heat.

3- Diesel index and thus the cetane number.

Where diesel index is equal to cetane number plus 3

17- Penetration Point:
Penetration Point is the distance or depth
penetrated by a vertical standard needle at
certain conditions (Load =100g,Time =5sec,
Temperature =25⁰C) within the material to be
examined.
The degree of penetration describes the solidity
and consistency of asphalt, bituminous or grease.
This method is used for semisolid and solid
materials having a penetration up to 500.
Asphalt grades 40-50, 50-60, 60-70, 85-100, 120-
150, 200- 300.
ASTM tests for bitumen is 5, asphalt-217, and for
grease-217 & 1321.
18- Softening Point: ASTM 36 & 3461
Aims to measure and specify the temperature at
which bituminous, asphalt binders begin to show
fluidity. Also, it indicates to tendency of the
material to flow at elevated temperatures
encountered in service. As well as helps in
calculation of the penetration index (PI) of the
asphalt grade. For determine softening point use
Ring and Ball apparatus immersed in distilled
water (30 to 80 ᵒC).
19-Ductility Test: ASTM D 113
The ductility test aims to describe the ductile and tensile behavior of bituminous
binders. The test, which is normally performed at ambient temperature, is
believed to reflect the homogeneity of the binder and its ability to flow.
 distance is measured in (cm) to which bituminous material elongate before
braking.
 The specimen is placed in a water bath at 25˚C and allowed to equilibrate before
testing.
 If the asphalt sample sage (hard) then the test is not normal, add sodium
chloride to the water.

20- Doctor test: ASTM 4952

Doctor test is intended firstly for the detection of mercaptans R-SH in
gasoline, kerosene, and similar petroleum products. This method may also
provide information on hydrogen sulfide H₂S and elemental sulfur that may be
present in these sample types.
In cylindrical tube 10ml of sample is shaken with 5ml sodium plumbite
solution Na₂PbO₂·3H₂O, a small quantity of powdered sulfur added, and the
mixture shaken again. The presence of mercaptans or hydrogen sulfide or
both is indicated by discoloration of the sulfur solution at the oil-water
interface or by discoloration of either of the phases.
 21-WATER REACTION Test: ASTM 1094
This test detects the presence of water-soluble components in aviation
gasoline or aviation turbine kerosene (ATK), and the effect of these
components on volume change, as well as on the interface of water and
fuel.
20ml of the sample is shaken at room temperature with 20ml of
phosphate buffer solution in a cleaned Closed cylindrical glass tube. The
duration of shaking and stability is 2 and 5 minutes, respectively. The
change in volume of the aqueous layer and the appearance of the
interface is taken as the water reaction of the fuel.
Phosphate Buffer Solution (pH 7) - Dissolve 1.15g of potassium
monohydrogen phosphate, anhydrous (K2HPO4), and 0.47g of potassium
dihydrogen phosphate, anhydrous (KH2PO4) in 100 mL of distilled water.
Qualified fuel: 1/1, 1b/1, 1 /2, Or 1b/2

Rating Appearance ‫المظهر‬ ‫المعدل‬

Separation:
1 absence of emulsions and/or precipitates within either layer ‫بعد الفصل‬ -
or upon the fuel layer. .‫أو ترسب وسط أي من الطبقتين‬/‫غياب للمستحلب و‬ 1
2 Same as (1), except small air bubbles or small water droplets ‫ن‬AA‫و قطرا م‬AA‫د وجود فقاعات أ‬AA‫) ماع‬1( ‫ى‬AA‫ة األول‬AA‫كالحال‬ 2
in the fuel layer. .‫الماء في طبقة الوقود‬
3 Emulsions and/or precipitates within either layer or upon ‫ى‬A‫و عل‬A‫ن أ‬A‫ي كال الطبقتي‬A‫بات ف‬A‫و ترس‬A‫أ‬/‫تحلب و‬A‫ظهور مس‬ 3
the fuel layer, and/or droplets in the water layer or adhering .‫طبقة الوقود أو مالصقة لجدار اإلسطوانة‬
to the cylinder walls. :‫حال الطبقة البينية‬
Interface conditions: .‫صافية ونظيفة‬ 1
1 Clear and clean ‫ة‬A‫ن الطبق‬A‫ م‬%50 ‫ن‬A‫ل م‬A‫ي أق‬A‫افية تغط‬A‫غير ص‬A‫فقاعات ص‬ 1b
1b Clear bubbles covering not more than an estimated 50 % of
the interface and no shreds, lace, or film at the interface .‫ وطبقة غشائية في الطبقة البينية‬،‫وغير مبعثرة‬, ‫البينية‬
.‫تظهر أربطة أو غشاء رقيق على الطبقة البينية‬
2 Shred, lace, or film, or scum at interface .‫رباط فضفاضي واسع‬ 2
3 Loose lace or slight scum, or both .‫رباط مشدود‬ 3
4 Tight lace or heavy scum, or both 4
22- Electrical conductivity: ASTM 2624
The conductivity of hydrocarbon fluids is much lower than that of
nonhydrocarbons. Also, there is a difference between hydrocarbon
groups. Aromatics have a higher conductivity than those of paraffins while
naphthenes compounds occupy the middle . If the number of carbon in
the compound increase, the electrical conductivity will increase. The
importance of this property in transportation, storage and use of oils as
transformer oil.
The conductivity (ε) of the petroleum fractions is calculated by the
refractive index (nD): ε = nD ²
Average conductivity of crude oil about (2.2), gasoline (1.9) and diesel
(2.4).
Specific conductivity is calculated by picosiemens per meter (Ps/m).
Gasoline is located between (0.3-10), kerosene (0.02-400) and diesel (600-
1200). Specific conductivity increases by increasing the temperature or
sharing of chemical elements in the compound.
Liquid paraffin compounds have high stability against electrical
conductivity, therefore, are used as electrical insulation oils in
transformers and capacitors. This type of oil is characterized by high
Breakthrough voltage. The breakthrough voltage is negatively affected by
humidity, heat, pressure or current frequency.
Petroleum derivatives have the characteristic of retention and
accumulation for the electric charges, which are called electrostatics.
These electrostatics resulting from movement should be discharged at the
moment of loading, transport and storage in order to reduce the risk of
ignition.
Measures to prevent electrification: reducing the level of polar impurities,
reducing the level of transport speed and vibration, and connecting of the
transport and storage devices to the ground, or adding the chemical
additives.
23-Heat Properties:
Specific heat, evaporation heat, Enthalpy, fusion Heat,
sublimation heat, combustion heat, and thermal
conductivity. These all heats are related to the oil and
gas refining and treatment processes. Determination of
thermal properties in a laboratory has an extreme
difficulty. For this reason, often was used arithmetic
equations or diagrams in technological calculations.
1)Specific Heat of Petroleum Products:
2)Specific heat capacity of Pet. Kj/kg
Liq. phase:
Kj/kg·⁰C If K ≠ 11.8 the values
3)Specific Heat capacity of petroleum Gas or Vapor obtained for the specific
heat must be multiplied
phase at 1atm: by the correction
coefficient, which is
𝟔𝟎 𝑭
𝟒−𝝆 𝟔𝟎 𝑭 located on the right
𝒄 𝒑=𝟒.𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟖
4)Specific [
Vaporization (𝟏.𝟖𝒕+𝟕𝟎𝟐)(𝟎.𝟏𝟒𝟔
Heat : 𝑲 𝑾 −𝟎.𝟒𝟏)] angle.
𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟎 KJ/Kg
𝑇 𝑏𝑝
𝐿𝑝𝑏=4.1868( 𝐾 )
𝑀

KJ/Kg
5)Specific Enthalpy:
KJ/Kg

KJ/Kg Note: t represented °Celsius

Specific Heat of Petroleum Products at t in &

Specific Heat capacity of petroleum Gas or Vapor phase at 1atm:

𝟒 − 𝝆 𝟔𝟎 𝑭
𝟔𝟎 𝑭
𝒄 𝒑=𝟒 .𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟖 [ (𝟏 .𝟖 𝒕 +𝟕𝟎𝟐 )(𝟎 . 𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑲 𝑾 − 𝟎 .𝟒𝟏 )]
𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟎
Specific Vaporization Heat (at boiling point )
Where

Specific Heat (at T> boiling point)

𝑳𝑻 = 𝑳𝒃𝒑 ¿ or

Specific Enthalpy:
𝒕𝟐

𝑯 𝒍 =∫ 𝑪 𝒑 𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟐
Where
𝒕𝟏
If ≠ 11.8 the values
obtained for the
specific heat must be
multiplied by the
correction coefficient,
which is located on the
right angle.
6)Specific Enthalpy of vap. at p˃1atm: : Kj/kg
H tVp  H tV  H

Whare

Where

, Where
in (MN/m²); K = 5-5.3 for Pf, 6 for Nf, 6.6-7 for Ar, or 5.5 for petroleum distillate

8)Heat of Reaction: Kj/kg

8)Heat of Combustion:

kJ/L
Combustion (burning) of hydrocarbons releases (carbon
dioxide (CO2) water vapor & heat) into the atmosphere.

Fuel + O2 → CO2+ H2O + Heat.

CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O
24- Heat Conduction:
Thermal conductivity depends on:
1- Chemical composition; 2. The phase state
3. Pressure; 4. Heat.
The lowest conductivity coefficient is for gases and petroleum fumes, the high is
for solid petroleum products, while the liquids occupy the middle.
The Increasing in temperature leads to increasing in the thermal conductivity
coefficient of gas & vapor and decreasing in the coefficient of the petroleum
liquid, the following many H. conductivities:

 Eq. for gases & vaporous :

,
 Eq. for liquid distillates:
,
 Eq. for paraffin hydrocarbon groups:

 Eq. for naphthene & aromatic groups:

- dynamic viscosity
- specific heat - molecular weight
- Density kg/m³
25-Octane Number : ASTM 2699 & 2700
Octane number is used as a primary specification measurement related to
the gasoline fuels and engines. And it connects the ignition inside the motor
and the antiknock performance. With other wards, the octane number
represents the ability of a gasoline to resist knocking during combustion of
the air–gasoline mixture in the engine cylinder.
The octane number derives from performance of standard mixture. n-
heptane has an octane number (RON and MON) of 0, while iso-octane (2,2,4-
trimethyl pentane) is 100. Linear combinations of these two components are
used to measure the octane number of a particular fuel. Example, blend
( 90% of iso-octane + 10% n-heptane) has an octane value of 90. Any fuel
knocking at the same compression ratio as this mixture is said to have an
octane number of 90.
Motor octane number MON, in conjunction with Research octane number
RON, defines the antiknock index of automotive spark-ignition engine fuels,
in accordance with Specification D4814.
Both numbers are measured with a standardized single cylinder and variable
compression ratio. For both RON and MON, the engine is operated at a
constant speed, since the compression ratio is increased until the onset of
knocking. For RON engine speed is set at 600 rpm and MON is at 900 rpm.
Mean octane number is ( MON+RON)/2
Combination RON & MON methods according Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR)

Motor to determine Octane Number , ASTM 2699

Octane number of pure Hydrocarbons
Ether octane number:

MTBE 115

O.N. is increased by chemical transformation.

EXAMPLE :
Light gasoline by Isomerization process
n-paraffins → i-paraffins
n-C₆ (RON25) → 2,2-DM Butane (RON 91.8)

Heavy gasoline by Catalytic Reforming process

n-paraffins, naphtens → aromatics
Hexane (RON25) →
Cyclohexane (RON = 83) → Benzene (RON = 108)
26- Cetane Number: ASTM 613
This test method determines the rating of diesel fuel in terms of an
arbitrary scale of cetane numbers using a standard single cylinder, four-
stroke cycle, variable compression ratio, and indirect injected diesel
engine.
The cetane number scale covers the range from zero to 100 but typical
testing is in the range of 30 to 65 cetane numbers.
The cetane number is one of the most common indicators of diesel fuel
quality. It measures the fuel's readiness to spontaneously ignite when
injected into the engine. In other words, the performance number of the
fuel is related to the auto-ignition temperature. Generally, the cetane
number or performance number depends on the fuel components and
can affect engine starting, noise level, and exhaust emissions.
A substance that ignited very quickly, cetane (n-hexadecane) was
arbitrarily given a rating of 100, and a substance that was slow to ignite,
assigned rate – zero. It is alpha-methylnapthalene C11H10 (1-
methylnaphthalene) with MP(-22) & BP ~241.5 °C,. Values on this scale
were named “cetane numbers.”

CN  60.96  0.56MON
CN  68.54  0.61RON
Motor to determine Cetane Number , ASTM 613