INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS
WHAT IS DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
 It is a special branch of electronics in general and deals
with mainly with its digital components, etc.
 The word “Digit” in arithmetic means “position of a
number”.
 However, now, “digital electronics”, numbers are
expressed directly as only two digits “0” and “1”.
 The main reason for this unprecedented growth in
“digital electronics” is in the advent of digital IC’s
(integrated circuit)
 IC Technology has become so advanced, complex digital
circuits like digital watches, memories, microprocessor
and all the latest equipment comprising millions and
millions of active and passive components, can be
fabricated on a tiny silicon-chip. The low-cost and easy
availability of these devices has resulted in their wide-
spread use.
 HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
 Diode vacuum tube was the first electronic component invented
by J.A. Fleming. Later, Lee De Forest developed the triode, a
three element vacuum tube capable of voltage amplification.
Vacuum tubes played a major role in the field of microwave and
high power transmission as well as television receivers.
 In 1947, Bell laboratories developed the first transistor based on
the research of Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain. However,
transistor radios are not developed until the late 1950’s due to the
existing huge stock of vacuum tubes.
 In 1959, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments developed the first
integrated circuit. Integrated circuits contain large number of
semiconductor devices such as diodes and transistors in very
small area.
BASIC CONCEPT
 DIGITAL DEVICES
 We use “digital devices”, even our daily life, in one way or the
other.
 “Digital watches” are widely used by almost all sections of the
society, young or old, boy or girl.
 “Electronic pocket calculator” too have become to common,
in offices, business and even in houses and with school-going
children.
 All these are examples of use of digital devices. Thus, a digital
device is the one which works on the “digital principle”.
 DIGITAL PRINCIPLE:
 When a device is so controlled that its output signals
appears only for a certain combination of input signals, and
also the variables used in it, can assume only one of two
values either “0 or 1”, the said device is work on “digital
concept”.
 For example, a Diode is a digital device, because it
conducts only in one direction. So if an A.C signal is passed
through it, it cuts off one type of pulses (negative or
positive). Or in other words, it acts like a “Switch” or
“Gate” as it opens or allows currents to flow only in
direction-anode to cathode in other words, it has only two
position- “ON” and “OFF”. These we call as state “0” and
“1”. Similarly, a “Relay” is either energized or not, light is
“ON” or “OFF”, or a pulse is present or not.
 COMPUTING AND COMPUTER
 To “compute” means to “calculate” and “calculation” is done by
“counting”.
 The history 0f “computation” is old as the history of mankind.
 The man begun to count, since early days of its civilization , when ‘stones’ and
‘beads’ were used as a means of remembering a count. The stones and beads
represented the quantity of an item. Then came the use of lines at a suitable
places. The number of lines could be increased or decreased, depending upon
the change in the quantity of the item represented. Sometimes later, was evolved
another ways of counting, that became quite popular and is even now widely
used. It made the use of fingers of both the hands, in place of stones, beads or
lines. Since there are 10 fingers, it gave birth to “decimal counting” which
later on, become universal mode of counting. Fingers are also called “digits”.
Therefore, each “finger” (digit) represents a separate count. Decimal counting
is the bae of modern arithmetic.
 The use of fingers for counting had its limitations. So
search was made for counting aids. One such device was
called abacus. Later, Slide Rule was also developed as a
tool, to help in computations.
 Then in 1801, Jacquined invented “Punched Card” to
store information which had holes. Herman Hollenrith,
later used these punched cards for tabulation of census
operation in USA in 1890.
 The first successful mechanical computer was built by a
French Mathematician, Blaise Pascal in 1642 for discrete
calculation.
 In 1833, Charles Babbage, a British matematician, made
his “Differential Engine” to prepare mathematical tables.
 COMPUTER GENERATION
 The Era of Vacuum Tubes (1st Generation)
(1942-1955)
 The first “electronic-digital” computer was made by
University of Pennsylvaria in 1946. It used about 32,
000 vacuum tubes.
 It used of vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory. It can only solve one problem at a
time.
 It was named Electronic Numerical Indicon and
Computer (ENIAC ). Computer like EDVAC and
UNIVAC were developed during the period 1950-1952.
All these used vacuum tubes.
 Transistor (2nd Generation)
(1956-1965)

 Transistors used punched cards for input and printout

for output.
 Integrated Circuit (3rd Generation)
(1966-1975)
 Transistors were made smaller in size and placed
on a silicon chips called integrated circuit.
 It increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

 It can solved many problems at a time.

 Microprocessor (4th Generation)
(1971-Present)
 Thousand of Integrated circuits were built onto a
single silicon chips.
 As these small computers became more powerful,
they could be linked together to form networks which
eventually led to the development of the internet.
 Artificial Intelligence (5th Generation)
(Present and Beyond)

 Fifth generation of computers will come close to

bridging the gap between computing and thinking.
 It is expected that these computers will be able to
understand even ordinary languages like English.
TYPES OF COMPUTER
ANALOG VS DIGITAL COMPUTING SYSTEM
 ANALOG COMPUTER
 The word “Analog” is a greek word, which means
establishing similarities between two quantities. In
analog computers, physical processes such as pressure,
acceleration, power, force, viscosity, surface tension,
etc are represented by electrical current or voltage
signals.
 When a particular physical parameter is continuously
varying, its analogous electrical parameter also will be
continuously varying.
 The computing units of analog computer are able to
respond immediately to changes in the input signal,
which they detect in it.
 These can also perform very complex arithmetic
functions, at the high speed while actual process is in the
operation.
 Thus, analog computing systems require a lot initial
adjustments, before computation is started, while no
such adjustments are needed in digital systems.
 DIGITAL COMPUTER
 Basically, a digital computer works on the principle of
‘counting’.
 Such computer operate on discrete numbers represented
by a finite sequence of digits.
 In other words, a digital-computer accepts discrete
numbers as Input and after performing the desired
processing, on these numbers, it produces discrete
numbers as Output.
 Since a digital computer works directly on the variables
on the problem, rather than on some equivalent
contineous variable, it is more accurate than the analog
type. Depending on the flexibility in operation, digital
computers are either “special” or “general purpose”
SPECIAL COMPUTER
 When a computer is meant to solve a restricted class of
problem, it is called ‘special’.
 It incorporates the instruction needed, into the design of
its internal circuiting.
 As a result, it can perform the task just on a simple
command, quickly and efficiently.
 Sometimes, such computers are used to decrease the
processing load on a large computers.
 Example: digital computer for process-control in
industry, robot and air traffic control
GENERAL PURPOSE DIGITAL COMPUTER
 These are designed to solve a wide variety of problems
to meet the needs of the memory application.
 However, the instructions needed to perform a particular
task are not mixed permanently into its internal
circuiting.
 These are read from an input device, and placed into the
internal memory, until they are needed.
 Example: Payroll, Sales Analysis, etc
 HYBRID COMPUTER
 It combines the features of both the analog and digital
computer. Normally, it is an analog-computer, controlled
by a digital computer, instead of human being.
For Example:
Intensive Care Unit (ICU) of a hospital, the analog-device measure’s
the heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These
measurements are converted into numbers and supplied to the digital
components that mention’s the patient’s vital signs and signal’s the
nurse attention, if abnormal reading are detected.

 However, Hybrid computers are used only for special

application. Main areas of their use are aerospace and
process control.
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
 The physical equipment and components, which one
can see, touch and feel in the computer system are
called “Hardware”.
 The magnetic, mechanical, electrical or optical
devices used in the computer are examples of
computer hardware.
 Computer-hardware, as it a machine, of itself, it can’t
solve a given problem. These physical components
are to be properly instructed to work in a desired way.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
 Set of programmed instructions, which enable the
hardware unit to perform tasks, constitute a computer
software.
 The computer’s hardware acts like a interface between
the computer’s hardware and the users.
 Software itself has two types: (1) Application Software,
(2) System Software
 The term application software applies to the programmers to
accomplish (1) General purpose application programmes such as
word processing, electronic spread sheet, graphics and etc.
 The term System Software refers to the programmes written for a
specific computer, to aid programmers/ users of that computer. It
controls all processing activities and makes sure that the resources
and the power of the computer, are most in efficient way.
POCKET CALCULATOR VS DIGITAL COMPUTER
 A pocket calculator only computes whereas a computer
not only computes but also performs many other
functions, which a calculator cannot.
 An ordinary calculator (1) does not have the capacity of
text-processing (2) it has only a small built in display
window (3) for its operation no operating system as a
command operator is needed (4) contains no secondary
stage (5) is generally non-programmable.
 The other main difference I in the speed of computation,
a computer may perform a million calculation, in short
time, during which calculator performs only one of
these calculations.
 Calculator carries out the desired arithmetic operations,
only when an appropriate keys of its keyboard are
pressed by the user.
 The computer on the other hand, will carry out these
operations, without human intervention, when properly
instructed.
 The sequence of these instructions is pre-planned
carefully for each problem and is known as Program.
Thus computer may be programmed to solve different
varieties, whereas it may not be possible to solve these
problems with a calculator.
 Computers is sometimes classified as general purpose
programmable computer while a calculator is special
purpose stored program computer.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONICS
Electronic devices are playing a major role in everyday life.
The various electronic devices we use in everyday life
include :
 Computers

Today, computers are using everywhere. At home, computers

are used for playing games, watching movies, doing
research, paying bills and reservation of tickets for railways
and airlines. At school, students use computers to complete
their assignments.
 Mobile phones

Mobile phones are used for variety of purposes such as for

sending text messages, making voice calls, surfing internet,
playing games, and listening songs.
 ATM
ATM is an electronic telecommunication device particularly
used for withdrawing money at any time from anywhere.
ATM stands for automated teller machine. The customer can
withdraw money up to a certain limit during anytime of the
day or night.
 Pen drive

Pen drive is particularly used for storing large amount of

data and also used for transferring data from one device to
another. For example, the data stored in the computer can be
transferred to the pen drive. The data stored in this pen drive
can be retrieved at anytime.
 Television
Television is an electronic device primarily used for
entertainment and knowledge. It is used for watching
movies for entertainment, news for knowledge, cartoons for
children’s.
 Digital camera

Digital camera is a camera used for taking pictures and

videos. This images and videos are stored for later
reproduction.
NUMBER SYSTEM AND
CODES
INTRODUCTION
 Number System consists of a set of Symbols and Rules
for Representation of any number. Its knowledge is
essential, because the design and organisation of a
computer is dependent upon it.
 Number System, broadly speaking, are of two types, (1)
Non-positional (2) Positional.
 In the non-positional type, symbols represents same
value, regardless of its position in the number. Because
we cannot, carryout arithmetical calculations, with such a
system, positional number system were developed.
 The value of each symbol, in this system, is
determined by the digit itself, its position in the
number and the base of the number system.
 The four systems which are often used in digital
circuits, (1) Decimal, (2) Binary, (3) Octal and (4)
Hexa-decimal.
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
 The decimal number system is the number system we use
everyday, from counting to simple math like checking store
recepts.
 The word 'deci' means 10, therefore there are ten numbers
(digits) in the decimal decimal number system. The valid
numbers in a base 10 number system are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
 All number systems have a 'base'. The base is the same as the
number of valid numbers in the system.
 Since the decimal number system has 10 valid numbers it is a
'base 10' number system. The base is also referred to as a
'radix' and in the PLC/PAC software the user can change the
radix (base) of the numbers for display purposes.
A decimal number showing its base would be written:
25710 or 257d
 Where the small letter 'd' designates that it it a decimal
number. We normally do not write the base on decimal
numbers. If the base is not displayed the number is
assumed to be a decimal number.
DIGIT WEIGHTING
 Each digit in a number system has a weight value assigned.
Decimal numbers are 'base-10' numbers, therefore the
weight of each digit is a power of 10.
 Each digit also has a position number. The first digit on the
right is position zero. The next digit to the left is position
one. To the left again is position two, etc.
 The weight of the digit in each position is the base of the
number system raised to the power of the position number.
The value of the number is than calculated by multiplying
the value of the digit in each position by the base raised to
the power of that position and then summing the products.
 The following figure represents a decimal number with the
position and weight of each digit shown and how the value
of the number is derived.
THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
 Name
• “binarius” (Latin) => two
 Characteristics

• Two symbols
01
• Positional
1010B ≠ 1100B
 Most (digital) computers use the binary number

system
 Binary is exactly the same, only instead of ten
digits/states (0 to 9) we have just two, so the base
becomes 2:
WORKS FOR FRACTIONAL NUMBERS TOO..
DECIMAL-BINARY EQUIVALENCE
DECIMAL-BINARY CONVERSION
 Binary to decimal: expand using positional
notation
DECIMAL TO BINARY: DO THE REVERSE
DECIMAL-BINARY CONVERSION

 The most popular method used is called dibble-dabble method. In

this method the given decimal number is successively divided by 2
giving a succession of remainders of 0 and 1. the remainder read in
the reverse order give the binary equivalent of given decimal
number.
EXAMPLE CONVERSION
 Convert the following Binary Numbers into equivalent
Decimal Number.
a. (101101.1011)2 b. (0.0111)2 c. (1101101)2

 Convert the following Decimal Numbers to Binary

equivalents.
a. (0.65625)10 b. (274.1875)10 c. (65328)10
 DECIMAL TO BINARY: ANSWER

 (0.65625)10 = (0.10101)2
ACTIVITY # 1

1. Convert the following binary numbers to

equivalent decimal numbers.
(a) (1101)2
(b) (11101) 2
(c) (0101 1101) 2
(d) (1101.1101) 2
(e) (1111 1111) 2
2. Convert the following decimal numbers to
equivalent binary numbers.
(a) (45)10
(b) (255) 10
(c) (256) 10
(d) (241.6) 10
(e) (41.95) 10
THE HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
 Name
• “hexa” (Greek) => six
• “decem” (Latin) => ten
 Characteristics

• Sixteen symbols
0123456789AB CDEF
• Positional •
A13DH ≠ 3DA1H
 Computer programmers often use the hexadecimal

number system
DECIMAL-HEXADECIMAL EQUIVALENCE
DECIMAL-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
BINARY-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
 ACTIVITY
 Convert the following number system.
a. Hexa-decimal to Binary
1. 2A 16 2. 5F 16
b. Hexa-decimal to Decimal
3. 165 16 4. B28 16
c. Decimal to Hexa-decimal
5. 99 10 6. 45 10
d. Binary to Hexa-decimal
7. 10001011 2 8. 11110010 2
THE OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
 Name
“octo” (Latin) => eight
 Characteristics

• Eight symbols
01234567
• Positional
1743O ≠ 7314O
OCTAL TO DECIMAL CONVERSION:

Convert 547 octal to its equivalent decimal value,

(5 x 82) + (4 x 81) + (7 x 80) = 359.
DECIMAL TO OCTAL CONVERSION

The steps followed to convert decimal to binary

are
Step1: Divide the number by 8. Write the
remainder on the right corner.
Step2: Note the final Octal value from bottom to
up.
OCTAL TO BINARY CONVERSION:
It is very easy calculate the equivalent binary number
for a given octal number, each digit of a hex number
is individually converted to its binary equivalent.
Example:
Convert the octal number 547 into its equivalent
binary ,
5 ---------> 101
4 ---------> 100
7 ---------> 111
The binary equivalent is 101100111
OCTAL TO HEX CONVERSION:
To convert an octal number into hexadecimal we
follow the given steps
1. Convert each octal digit into groups of 3 digits
binary
2. Combine the groups from step 1
3. Divide the binary digits from step 2 into groups of
4 digits, starting from the right
4. Convert each group of 4 binary digits into 1
hexadecimal digit

Convert Octal number 258 into Hexadecimal form

Step 1. Convert each octal digit into groups of 3 digits
binary
Groups: 28 58
58 = 1012
28 = 0102
Step 2. Combine the groups so, 258 = 0101012 Step 3.
Divide the binary digits from step 2 into groups of 4 digits,
starting from the right Groups: 00012 01012
Step 4. Convert each group of 4 binary digits into 1
hexadecimal digit
01012 = 516 00012 = 116
so, 258 = 1516