SCI 401

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Engr. Ronna P. Dipasupil
Instructor
 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Chemistry of Soil
Soil is a mixture of weathered rocks and minerals,
decayed plants and animal material (humus and
detritus), and small living organisms which includes
plants, animals and bacteria. Soil also consists of
water and air.
A typical productive soil is 5% organic matter and
95% inorganic matter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=moexid5puSI
 Importance of Soil
⮚ production of food
⮚ maintaining the balance of carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus;
⮚ for the construction of building materials.
 Distinguished Layers of Soil
A layer of a typical soil is called
horizon. It is the product of complex
interactions between processes that
develop during weathering. The
rainwater that penetrates through
the soil bring dissolved and colloidal
solids to lower horizons where they
are deposited.
 Distinguished Layers of Soil
The A horizon or topsoil is the top layer of soil and
several inches in thickness. Maximum biological
activity in the soil happens in this layer. This layer
also contains most of the soil organic matter and is
important in the productivity of plant. In defining
the composition of soils, the parent rocks where soils
are formed play an important role.
Distinguished Layers of Soil
 Water and Air in Soil
The other characteristics of soil includes:

✔ Strength
✔ Workability
✔ Soil particle size
✔ Permeability
✔ Extent of maturity.
 Water and Air in Soil
Water is important because it
is the basic transport medium for
carrying essential plant nutrients
from solid soil particles into plant
roots and to the farthest reaches
of the plant’s leaf structure.
Transpiration happens when
the water in a plant evaporates
into the atmosphere from the
plant’s leaves.
 Water and Air in Soil
Soil carries the nutrients to the plant extremities
by this process wherein plants remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and add oxygen by
photosynthesis. The reverse of this process occurs
during plant respiration.
Water and Air in Soil
 Water and Air in Soil
If soil becomes saturated with water, the oxygen
will immediately be consumed by the respiration of
microorganisms and will cause degradation of
organic matter in soil.

Excess water in soils is harmful to plant growth,

and the soil does not contain the air required by
most plant roots. Most important crops (exception
of rice) cannot grow on soil soaked with water.
 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Inorganic matter in soil
Inorganic colloids are produced from the
weathering of parent rocks and minerals.
These colloids:
✔ are repositories of water and plant nutrients
which can be made available to plants as
needed
✔ plays a role in the detoxification of substances
that could harm plants
✔ often absorb toxic substances in soils
 Inorganic matter in soil
Minerals composed of Silicon and Oxygen
constitute most of the mineral fraction of the soil.
Common soil mineral constituents are:
Finely divided quartz (SiO2)
Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
Goethite (FeO(OH))
Magnetite (Fe3O4)

calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
Oxides of manganese and titanium.
 Organic matter in soil
Organic matter determines soil productivity
even though it typically constitutes only <5% of a
productive soil. These organic matter:
⮚ becomes source of food for microorganisms
⮚ undergoes ion exchange chemical reaction
⮚ contribute to the weathering of mineral
matter (process by which soil is formed)
 Organic matter in soil
The build-up of organic matter in soil is greatly
influenced by temperature and by the availability of
oxygen. Since the rate of biodegradation decreases with
decreasing temperature, organic matter does not degrade
rapidly in colder climates and tends to build up in soil.
In water and in waterlogged soils, decaying vegetation
does not have easy access to oxygen, and organic matter
accumulates. The organic content may reach 90% in areas
where plants grow and decay in soil saturated with water.
Organic matter in soil
Components of soil
 Soil Humus
Humus is composed of a base-soluble fraction
called humic and fulvic acids (organic material
that remains in the acidified solution), and an
insoluble fraction called humin (the residue left
when bacteria and fungi biodegrade plant
material).
Humic substances has an influence in properties
of soil even though it has a small percentage in
soil composition.
 Soil Humus
⮚ They have an acid-base character which serve
as buffers in soil and they significantly increase
the water-holding capacity of soil.
⮚ Humic substances also strongly bind metals and
serve to hold micronutrient metal ions in soil.
⮚ The aggregates of soil particles can also be
stabilize by these substances and additionally,
can increase the sorption of organic compounds
by soil.
 Soil Solution
⮚ The soil solution is the aqueous portion of soil that
contains dissolved matter from the chemical and
biochemical processes in soil and from the exchange
with the hydrosphere and biosphere.
⮚ This medium transports chemical species to and from
soil particles and provides contact between the solutes
and the soil particles.
⮚ It is also an important pathway for the exchange of plant
nutrients between roots and solid soil aside from water
which is vital for plant growth.
 Soil Solution
Most of the solutes
present in soil as salts
are composed of:
⮚ 𝐻+, 𝐶𝑎2+, 𝑀𝑔2+, 𝐾+ 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑁𝑎+ cations (with
lower levels of
𝐹𝑒2+, 𝑀𝑛2+, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑙3+)
⮚ 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−, 𝐶𝑂3−, 𝐻𝑆𝑂4−,
𝑆𝑂42−, 𝐶𝑙−, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹−
anions.
 Acid–Base And Ion-Exchange Reactions
The mineral and organic portions of soils both
exchange cations. Clay minerals undergo this
process because of the presence of negatively
charged sites on the minerals resulting from the
substitution of an atom of lower oxidation number
for one of higher number (e.g. Mg2+ for Al3+).
Acid–Base And Ion-Exchange Reactions
 Acid–Base And Ion-Exchange Reactions
Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by
which K, Ca, Mg, and essential trace-level metals
are made available to plants. When nutrient metal
ions are taken up by plant roots, H+ is exchanged for
the metal ions.
This process, plus the leaching of Ca, Mg, and
other metal ions from the soil by water containing
carbonic acid, tends to make the soil acidic:
 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
Most common plants grow best in soil with a pH
near neutrality. If the soil becomes too acidic for
optimum plant growth, it may be restored to
productivity by liming through the addition of
calcium carbonate:
 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
In areas of low rainfall, soils may become too
basic (alkaline) due to the presence of basic salts
such as 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3. Alkaline soils may be treated with
aluminum or iron sulfate, which release acid during
hydrolysis:
 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
Sulfur added to soils is oxidized by bacterially
mediated reactions to sulfuric acid:

Sulfur is used to acidify alkaline soils. The huge

quantities of sulfur now being removed from fossil
fuels to prevent air pollution by SO2 may make the
treatment of alkaline soils by sulfur much more
attractive economically.
 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
One important process that
occurs in soils is sorption.
Sorption is essentially the
attachment of a chemical to
either the mineral or organic
portions of soil particles and
includes both adsorption and
absorption.
 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
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 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
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 Sample Problem
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 Sample Problem
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 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Macronutrients
Elements that occur in substantial levels in plant
biomass and fluids are called macronutrients. The
elements that are usually recognized as essential
macronutrients includes: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
and S.
C and H can be absorbed from the atmosphere
while others can be obtained from soil. But N, P and
K are commonly added to soil as fertilizers.
Macronutrients
Macronutrients
 Micronutrients
There are 7 essential plant nutrient elements
defined as micronutrients. These include boron (B),
zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl). They constitute in
total less than 1% of the dry weight of most plants.
They play important roles in redox reactions and in
photosynthesis.
Micronutrients
 Fertilizers
Major components of crop fertilizers are NPK but
magnesium, sulfate and micronutrients may also be
added. Fertilizers are designated by number, such
as 6 for nitrogen (equivalent to 6%) expressed as N,
12 for phosphorus (equivalent to 12%) expressed as
P2O5, and 8 for potassium (equivalent to 8%)
expressed as K2O.
 Fertilizers
Farm manure corresponds to an approximately
0.5-0.24-0.5 fertilizer. The organic fertilizers such
as manure must undergo biodegradation to release
the simple inorganic species (NO3-, H𝑥(PO4-3)𝑥, K+)
absorbed by plants.
 Fertilizers
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, is a common solid
nitrogen fertilizer which has 33.5%N. Although
convenient for its application to soil, it requires
considerable care during manufacture and storage
because it is explosive.
One of the common problem that is produced
from the use of fertilizer is water pollution resulted
by agricultural runoff which is enriched in NPK from
fertilizers.
 Fertilizers
Eutrophication can occur. It is the excessive
growth of algae in water body which is caused by the
nutrients in fertilizers. Due to this, there would be
algal biomass decay that will consume oxygen, and
bodies of water are seriously damaged because of
oxygen depletion. As a non-point source of pollution,
fertilizer runoff presents a challenging
environmental problem.
Fertilizers
 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Soil Pollutants
Pollutants from Livestock Production
Livestock manure has a very high BOD and can rapidly
deplete oxygen when it gets into waterways. Decomposition
of animal waste products produces inorganic nitrogen that
can contaminate water with potentially toxic nitrate.
Inorganic N and P released to water can cause eutrophication
of water. Nitrous oxide (N2O) released to the atmosphere
from livestock waste degradation can be an air pollutant.
Methane generated in the anaerobic degradation of livestock
wastes is a potent greenhouse gas.
 Soil Pollutants
Pesticides and their Residues In Soil
There are four major concerns regarding pesticides in soil:
a) carryover of pesticides and biologically active
degradation products to crops grown in later seasons
b) biological effects on organisms in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems including bioaccumulation and transfer through
food chains
c) groundwater contamination
d) effects on soil fertility
 Soil Pollutants
Pesticides and their Residues In Soil
Herbicides are considered the most common chemicals
that affect soil and organisms. It is well studied that these
pesticides and other foreign compounds that remain in soil
for a long period of time have its effects. Some are listed
below:
a) the substances become increasingly resistant to
extraction and desorption process
b) they become significantly less bioavailable to organisms
c) overall toxicity is decreased
 Soil Pollutants
Wastes in Soil
Large quantities of waste products are received by soil.
Sulfur dioxide emitted in the burning of sulfur-containing
fuels ends up as sulfate in soil. Nitrogen oxides from the
atmosphere that are converted to nitrates are eventually
deposited in soil. Particulate lead from the exhaust of an
automobile is found at high concentration in soil along heavily
traveled highways. And also, elevated levels of heavy metals
from mines and smelters are found on soil near such
facilities.
 Soil Pollutants
Wastes in Soil
Soil is the receptor of many hazardous wastes from landfill
leachate, lagoons, and other sources. In some cases, land
farming (land treatment) of degradable hazardous organic
wastes is practiced as a means of disposal and degradation.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene (C6H6)
and toluene (C7H8),may contaminate soil in industrialized and
commercialized areas. Some of the sources of these VOCs
are: leaking underground storage tanks and landfills built
before current strict regulations which improperly discarded
solvents.
 Soil Pollutants
Wastes in Soil
Soil receives enormous quantities of pesticides as an
inevitable result of their application to crops. The
degradation of these pesticides on soil largely determines
their ultimate environmental effects. Among the factors to
be considered are the sorption of the pesticide by soil;
leakage of the pesticide into water, as related to its potential
for water pollution; effects of the pesticide on
microorganisms and animal life in the soil; and possible
production of relatively more toxic degradation products.
 Soil Pollutants
Soil Loss and Degradation
Soil is a fragile resource that can be lost by erosion or
become so degraded that it is no longer useful to support
crops.
The physical properties of soil and its susceptibility to
erosion, are strongly affected by the cultivation practices to
which the soil is subjected.
 Soil Pollutants
Soil Loss and Degradation
Desertification refers to the process associated with
drought and loss of fertility by which soil becomes unable to
grow significant amounts of plant life. Desertification
involves erosion, climate variations, water availability, loss of
fertility, loss of soil humus, and deterioration of soil chemical
properties.
Soil erosion is the loss of soil by the action of both water
and wind; water is the primary source of erosion.
 Soil Pollutants
Soil Loss and Degradation
A related problem is deforestation or loss of forests. The
problem is particularly acute in tropical regions, where the
forests contain most of the existing plant and animal species.
In addition to extinction of these species, deforestation can
cause devastating deterioration of soil through erosion and
loss of nutrients.
Soil Pollutants
 Chemistry of the
Environment:
Soil
● Nature and Pollution
● Inorganic and Organic matters
● Adjustment of Soil Acidity
● Macro- and Micronutrients
● Soil Pollutants
● Soil Preservation and Restoration
 Soil Preservation
Food as the most basic need of humans is an important
aspect in order to have the sustainability of means to produce
food as a top priority. The preservation of soil and its ability
to support plant life is the most basic part of food
sustainability.
Soil erosion is one of the problem that could affect the
soil. The preservation of soil from erosion is commonly
termed soil conservation.
 Soil Preservation
There are numerous traditional solutions to the soil
problem as agricultural practices which include terracing,
contour plowing, and periodically planting fields with cover
crops.
 Soil Preservation
For some crops, conservation tillage (no-till agriculture)
surely decreases erosion. This practice consists of planting a
crop among the residue of the previous year’s crop without
plowing. In the newly planted crop row, weeds are killed by
application of a herbicide prior to planting. The surface
residue of plant material left on top of the soil prevents soil
erosion.
Soil Preservation
 Agroforestry
Trees are a known perennial plants which are very
effective in stopping soil erosion. In the past, trees were
often allowed to grow naturally with native varieties without
the benefit of any special agricultural practices such as
fertilization. The productivity of biomass from trees can be
greatly increased with improved varieties including those that
are genetically engineered and with the improved cultivation
and fertilization.
 Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a promising alternative in sustainable
agriculture in which crops are grown in strips between rows
of trees. The trees help to preserve or balance the soil
particularly on sloping terrain. For example, choosing trees
with the capability to fix nitrogen then the system can be
efficient in this essential nutrient.
 Soil Restoration
Soil can be impaired by loss of fertility, erosion, buildup of
salinity, and contamination by phytotoxins (such as zinc from
sewage sludge). Soil has a degree of resilience and can
largely recover whenever the conditions leading to its
degradation are removed.
However, in many cases, more active measures called soil
restoration are required to restore soil productivity, through
the application of restoration ecology. Measures taken in soil
restoration may include physical alteration of the soil to
provide terraces and relatively flat areas not subject to
erosion.
 Soil Restoration
Organic matter can be restored by planting crops. Residues
of which are cultivated into the soil for partially decayed
biomass. Nutrients may be added and contaminants are
neutralized.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
The practice of green chemistry may significantly enhance
agricultural productivity and sustainability.
The application of green chemistry to agriculture holds
promise for preventing or alleviating problems such as the
following:
a) Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers and their products
have accumulated on agricultural lands and waters leading to
adverse effects on wildlife, the environment, and potentially
humans as well.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
b) Nontarget organisms have suffered and insect and weed
pests have built up resistance to agents used in their
eradication.
c) Poorly trained and inadequately protected personnel in
less developed countries have suffered adverse effects from
modern agricultural products.
d) Disposal problems have arisen with respect to obsolete
pesticides.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture is a science of living organisms applied to
human needs for food and fiber production. So in attempting
to find more sustainable and environment-friendly approaches
to agriculture, use an approach like biomimetics. It is when
humans attempt to mimic natural life systems.
Pesticides that come from natural sources such as plants or
bacteria are called biopesticides. These substances are usually
more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides,
although the blanket assumption that anything from a natural
source is automatically safer than synthetic materials should
not be made.
Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
Biopesticides has its advantages which include:
⮚ a generally lower toxicity than conventional pesticides
⮚ has high specificity for target pests
⮚ effective even in very small quantities
⮚ rapid decomposition