Lecture 2.

General morphology: Life

span, habit, root, stem, leaf -
petiole, leaf margin, leaf apex, leaf
shape, venation and phyllotaxy;
Modification of roots and leaf.

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• The plants are also classified based on their
life span (duration) and general growth habit

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 Plant life span(DURATION)
• Annuals: These plants attain the full growth in one season.
During this period, they produce flowers and seed and then
die at the end of the season.
(eg.) Sunflower, Paddy.

• Biennials: These are those plants that live for 2 years.

• They attain their full vegetative growth in the first year and
produce flowers and seeds in the second year.
• Afterwards, they die off. (eg.) Cabbage, Carrot and Radish.

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 Plant life span(DURATION)

• Perennials: Perennials are those plants that persist for many

years. (Polycarpic) (eg.)Mango, Tamarind

• Multiennials: Live for many years like the perennials but do

not flower every year but flowers and give fruits only once
during their life cycle (Monocarpic). (eg.) Agave, Palm,
Bamboo

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 II GROWTH HABIT
• Herbs: These are small plants with soft stem. .
• Shrubs: They are medium sized plants of hard and woody
stem which branches profusely from near the ground so that
the plant becomes bushy in habit without having a clear
trunk.
• They are larger than herbs and smaller than trees.
• (eg) Garden Crotons.
• Trees: They are very tall plants with clear trunk and have hard
woody broader stem. (eg) Mango trees

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 VEGETATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF
PLANTS
• ROOT
• Root - portion of the plant which grows
downward into the soil.
• The primary functions of the roots are
• fixation of plant in the soil,
• absorption of nutrients
• conduction of nutrients to stem and leaves.

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 two types of root system
• a. Tap root system: During germination of seed,
radicle gives rise to primary or
tap root system which grows down and becomes
main root.
• The primary root and its branches form the tap root
system of the plant.
• (eg) All Dicot plants

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• b. Adventitious root system: Roots that grow from
any part of the plant body other than the
radicle are called adventitious roots.
• They may develop from the base of the stem
replacing the primary root or in addition to it, or
from any node or internode of the stem or the
branch, even from the leaf under special
circumstances.
• (eg) All Monocot plants

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 stem
• The stem develops from the plumule and
bears leaves at the points called nodes.
• The portion of the stem between the two
nodes is called the internode.
• Stem may be branched or unbranched.
• It may be erect and strong stemmed or weak
stemmed.

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 Stem
Weak stemmed plants may be
• (a) Trailing: lying pros­trate on the ground as in
cucurbits called procumbent or pros­trate or stem
trailing on some distance tends to rise at the apex
called decumbent. E.g. Tridax.
• (b) Creeping :It may be runner, offset, stolon or
sucker.
• (c) Climbing: Here week stem attaches itself to any
neighbouring object by means of some special devices
and climb. E.g. Pea, gourd, betel vine.

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I Underground stem modifications

• a. Rhizome : E.g. Ginger, Turmeric

• b. Tuber : E.g. Potato
• c. Bulb : E.g. Onion, Garlic, Tube
rose
• d. Corm : E.g. Colocasia

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 II. Sub aerial modification of stems
• Runner: This is a slender, prostrate branch with long or short internodes,
creeping on the ground and rooting at the nodes eg . Marsilea, Strawberry
• Stolon: This is a slender lateral branch arising from the base of the plant.
(eg) Mint
• Offset: Like runners this originates in the axil of a leaf as a short, more or
less thickened, horizontal branch.(eg.) water lettuce, water hyacinth
• Sucker: Like the stolen, the sucker is also a lateral branch developing from
the underground part of the stem, but it grows obliquely upwards and
directly gives rise to a leafy shoot or a new plant.
• Eg. Chrysanthemum, banana
• Sobole: The underground runner or the creeping stem having no reserve
food is the Sobole. (eg) Agropyron

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 C. LEAF:
• Leaves are generally broad,
flattened, lateral out growth and
photosynthetic in function.
• They are borne on stems at nodes.

• A complete leaf is composed of a

greenish expanded form called
leaf blade or lamina
• and the stalk called petiole.
• The point of petiole by which the
leaf is attached to stem is called
leaf base.
• Leaf base at times bears two small
lateral outgrowths called stipules.

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• 1. Petiole
• Petiolate :Leaves with petiole Cotton, Sunflower.
• Sessile : Leaves without petioles, Tobacco.
• Pulvinate : Leaf base is swollen. All pulses
• Stipulate :Leaves having stipules. Groundnut, Rose.
• Exstipulate : Leaves without stipules. Sunflower.

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 2. Leaf margin:
• The edge of the leaf blade is referred as the margin. It may be
• Entire : Margin is even and smooth. E.g. Banyan.
• Serrate : Sharp triangular teeth pointed towards the apex.
• E.g. Acalypha sanderi, Rosa damascena.
• Dentate : Triangular teeth pointing outwards. E.g. Hibiscus
rosasinensis.
• Crenate : Teeth are rounded. E.g. Bryophyllum pinnatum.
• Spiny : Margin is provided with spines. E.g. Aloe vera.
• Repand : Margin is slightly undulating. E.g. Mangifera
indica.
• Sinuate : Deeply undulating. E.g. Polyalthia longifolia.

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 3. Apex of the leaf
• Acute : When the tip is pointed but not stiff. E.g. Mango.
• Acuminate : Tip drawn out into slender tail. E.g. Ficus
religiosa.
• Emarginate : The apex is provided with a deep notch. E.g.
Bauhinia purpurea(Orchid tree or butterfly tree).
• Mucronate : Minute prolongation of mid rib beyond the tip.
E.g. Crotalaria juncea.
• Obtuse : When it is rounded. E.g. Ficus bengalensis
• Cuspidate : Apex forms a spinous structure. E.g. Aloe vera.

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 4. Shape of the leaf
• Linear : Blade is long and narrow. E.g. Grasses.
• Lanceolate : Long and tapering at the end like a lance. E.g.
Bamboo, Nerium.
• Rotund/ : More or less round. E.g. Nelumbium speciosum
orbicular (lotus) and Nymphaea sp (Water lily).
• Oblong : Blade wide, long with two margins running
more or less parallel. E.g. Musa paradisiaca.
• Ovate : Egg shaped. E.g. Ficus bengalensis.
• Obovate : Inverted egg shaped E.g. Teak.
• Cordate : Heart shaped. E.g. Thespesia.
• Sagitate : Arrow shapped. E.g. Aroids (anthurium).
• Falcate : Sickle shaped. (curved). E.g. Neem.
• Lyrate : Shape is like that of a lyre. E.g. (Radish)
• Reniform : Kidney shaped. E.g. Centella. (Vallarai)

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 5. Venation
• Venation: Arrangement of veins and veinlets
in the leaf blade.
• The prominent central vein of a leaf is called
mid rib. This produces lateral veins.
• Two types of venatinos.
• a) Parallel venation
• B)Reticulate venation

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 a) Parallel venation
• Parellel venation : The veins are all more or less of the same
size and run parallel to one another. Parallel venation is
characteristic of monocots. There are two types of parallel
venations.
• i. Pinnately parallel: Strong mid rib gives out branches which
run parallel to each other. E.g. Banana, Ginger.
• ii. Palmatey parallel : Number of veins start from the base
and spread out as in palmyrah (divergent) or
• run parallel to one another along the length of the blade and
converge at the tip as in grasses and bamboo (convergent).

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 b. Reticulate venation
• Reticulate venation: The veins branch again and again,
forming a complete network through the leaf. This venation
is characteristic of dicots. It is also known as netted
venation.
• Two types under this.
• i. Pinnately reticulate: Prominent mid rib giving rise to
branches and again divide further to form a net work. E.g.
Mango.
• ii. Palmately reticulate: Several large veins arise from a
common point at the tip of the petiole and spread out fan like
throughout the blade. E.g. cotton, cucurbits.

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 PHYLLOTAXY
• The mode of arrangements of leaves on stem or branch to
avoid shading one another and so that leaves may get
maximum sunlight.
Different arrangements of leaves are
• 1. Alternate: Only one leaf at each node.
• 2. Opposite :Leaves arranged in pairs at each node.
• 3. Ternate: Three leaves at each node E.g. Nerium
• 4. Whorled: More than three leaves at each node
E.g. Almaun.
• 5. Radical : Leaves arise in a cluster from the shortened stem
near the ground level. E.g. agave, radish.

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Radical leaf

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 Distichous
• 1. Alternate leaf : Only one
leaf at each node.
• a) Distichous: Alternate
leaves arranged to right and
left side of the stem on one
plane E.g. Guinea grass and
polyalthia.
Spiral
• b) Spiral : Alternate leaves
arranged sprially on the stem.
E.g. Hibiscus

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• 2. Opposite :Leaves arranged
in pairs at each node. superposed

• a) Superposed: Opposite
leaves arranged is one plane
E.g. Guava.
• b) Decussate: Each pair may
be at right angle to the one
above and one below. E.g.
Calotropis, Catharanthus.

Decussate
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 Leaf Arrangement on Stems
• Alternate – Arranged in staggered fashion along stem
(willow)
• Opposite – Pair of leaves arranged across from each other
on stem (maple)
• Whorled – Arranged in a ring (catalpa)
• Rosette – Spiral cluster of leaves arranged at the base (or
crown) (dandelion)

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 Leaflet Arrangement on Petiole
• Simple – Leaf blade is one continuous unit
• (cherry, maple, and elm)
• Compound – Several leaflets arise from the same petiole
Pinnately compound – Leaflets arranged on both sides of a
common rachis (leaf stalk), like a feather (mountain ash)
• Palmately compound – Leaflets radiate from one central point
(Ohio buckeye and horse chestnut)
• Double pinnately compound – Double set of compound leaflets

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 A. MODIFICATION OF TAP ROOTS
• 1. Fusiform root: The roots (hypocotyl) are swollen in the middle
and gradually tapering towards apex with a spindle shaped
appearance. (eg) Radish.
• 2. Napiform root: The roots are considerably swollen at the
upper part and sharply tapering at the lower part. (eg.) Turnip
and Beetroot.
• 3. Conical root: The roots are broad at the base and gradually
taper towards the apex like a cone. (eg.) Carrot.
•

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 Branched root modification
(for respiration)
Pneumatophores: In marshy places, certain plants
develop a special kind of roots called respiratory
roots or pneumatophores for the purpose of
respiration.
The underground roots of the plant grow vertically
upwards and come out of the water as conical spikes.

Each root is provided with numerous pores or

respiratory spaces at the top through which air is
taken for respiration. (eg.) Rhizophora.
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 B. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
MODIFICATION
Tuberous root
• I. FOR STORAGE OF FOOD
• Tuberous or tubercular root: Swollen
roots without any definite shape.
Tuberous roots are produced singly and
not in clusters. (eg) Sweet Potato.
• Fasciculated roots: When several Fasciculated roots
tubercular roots occur in a cluster or
fascicle at the base of the stem, they are
said to be fasciculated. (eg) Dhalia,
Asparagus.

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 B. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
MODIFICATION
• Nodulose roots: When the
slender root becomes suddenly
swollen at the apex, it is said to be
nodulose. (eg) Mangoginger.
• Moniliform or beaded roots:
Roots with swellings at frequent
intervals. (eg.) Momordica,
Portulaca and Wild vine.
• Annulated roots: Roots with a
series of ring like swellings on its
body. (eg.) Psychotria – a
medicinal plant.
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 II. FOR MECHANICAL SUPPORT
• Prop or stilt root: A number of
roots produced from the main
stem and often from the
branches, grow vertically down
wards and become stouter
supporting the main stem like
pillars. (eg.) Banyan Tree
• Climbing roots: Roots produced
from their nodes and often from
the internodes and help in
climbing of plants. (eg.) Betel vine
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 II. FOR MECHANICAL SUPPORT

Buttress roots: In forest

trees, some of the stout roots
around the base of the main
trunk show prolific abnormal
growth, particularly on the
upper side.
They at first grown obliquely
downwards from the base of
the trunk and then spread
horizontally outwards, giving
support to the huge trunk.
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 III. FOR VITAL FUNCTIONS
• Parasitic roots or
Haustoria: Some
parasites develop
sucking roots that
penetrate into the
tissue of the host
plant and suck it.
Such roots are known
as sucking roots.
(eg.)Dodder(cuscuta), Broomrape (Orobanche) .

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 III. FOR VITAL FUNCTIONS
• Respiratory roots:
In aquatic plants, the
floating branches develop
adventitious roots which
are soft, light, spongy and
colourless.
• They usually develop above
the water level to store air
for respiration. (eg.)
Jussiaea

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 III. FOR VITAL FUNCTIONS
• Epiphytic roots: Some plants are
seen grown on branches of trees.
They never penetrate the supporting
plant like parasites.
• Instead they develop a special kind
of aerial roots which hang freely in
the air.
• Each hanging root is surrounded by
a spongy tissue called velamen,
which absorbs moisture from the
surrounding air.
• (eg.) Vanda, an epiphytic orchid
•
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 III. FOR VITAL FUNCTIONS

• Photosynthetic or
Assimilatory roots: Roots
that climb on neighbouring
trees and produce long,
slender hanging roots which
develop chlorophyll and turn
green in colour. (eg.)
Tinospora

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 Modification of leaf
• Leaf Tendrils
• Phyllodes
• Leaf Spines
• Scale Leaves
•

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 Modification of leaf
• Leaf Tendrils
• Tendrils are slender, spirally coiled springlike structures.
They are highly sensitive to contact and when they come
in contact with any support, tendrils coil around the
support like the stem twiners
In glory lily (Gloriosa superba) the leaf apex is modified
into a tendril.
In pea (Pisum sativum) the terminal leaflets of an
unipinnately compound leaf are modified into tendrils.

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 Pyllodes
• A phyllode is the petiole or rachis of a leaf which is
modified into a green flat structure for the purpose of
photosynthesis. In such a leaf the lamina is poorly
developed.
• In Acacia melanoxylon, the petiole is flattened, green and
becomes a phyllode.
• The leaflets and secondary rachii drop off.
• In Parkinsonia aculeata, the secondary rachii are
modified into phylodes which are photosynthetic.
• The primary rachis is modified into a spine.

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• Leaf Spines
• In some plants, leaves or parts of leaves may be modified into
spines.
• In Opuntia (prickly pear) leaves are poorly developed and fall
of very early, but the minute leaves of the axillary bud are
modified into spines.
• In Argemone (prickly poppy), the leaf margin is modified into
small spines.
• In Zizyphus the stipules are modified into spines.
• The spines act as defensive structures.

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Leaf
modifications

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• Scale Leaves
• In many desert plants, the
leaves are highly reduced and
appear as scales.
• The scale leaves are thin,
membranous, dry, stalkless and
brownish or colourless.
• In plants where the leaves are
reduced to scales in order to
minimise transpiration, the
function of photosynthesis is
relegated to the stems
(cladodes).
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