1 Course 3 Digitizing

3D seismic acquisition in
Transition zones (TZ) and OBC

areas
3. Digitizing
3D Seismic Acquisition in TZ and OBC
 Processing geophysicists deal only with digital
signals. Acquisition geophysicists face both the
analog and digital worlds.
 ANALOG: continuous infinite space and time

domains
 DIGITAL: discrete and finite space and time

domains
2
ANALOG Domain
3
Analog
 Spectrum: Fourier transform
 From continuous and infinite signal in time domain
 From continuous and infinite set of traces in space domain
 Has Amplitude and Phase components
-200 +110 deg
-0.250 0 -0.250 0
Dominant
Frequency
50 Bandwidth 50
100 100
Time Frequency Time Frequency
(sec) (Hz) (sec) (Hz)
150 150
200 200
Amplitude loss:
Unstable phase
0.250 250 0.250 250
4
Analog
 Frequency content of data
5
Analog
 Convolution
• The effect of a linear (time invariant, stable) filter is

described by the convolution operator *
• The convolution of two signals in time domain is
equivalent to a (complex) multiplication of their spectra
in frequency domain:
 The amplitudes of the spectra multiply together

 The phases of the spectra add together.
6
Analog
 Convolution s1*s2 of s1 with s2:
Yes No
The DC offset of a signal is the average of its samples
The DC offset of a signal is the spectral component at frequency 0
s1 has no offset but s2 has high offset, hence: s1*s2 has high offset
s1(t)=sin(2p.20.t) and s2(t)=sin(2p.40.t). Then s1*s2=0
s1(t)=100,000.sin(2p.20.t) and s2(t)=sin(2p.40.t). Then s1*s2=0
s1(t)=2.sin(2p.40.t) and s2(t)=3.sin(2p.40.t+p/4). Then s1*s2=0
7
Analog
 Phase
• Phase coherency between two signals expressed by correlation
(multiply amplitudes, subtract phases).
• Auto-correlation: gather the energy of a signal around zero time,
removing the phase term. Allows characterizing dominant
frequency, RMS level and bandwidth
• Zero-phase signals
• Linear phase signals
• Minimum phase signals, to express a “real” signal:
 Causal
 Reversible
 Reversible by a real signal, i.e. with a causal inverse
This is typically an ANALOG character
8
Analog
 Autocorrelation
Max
Bandwidth factor
Trace Energy=Max
Min
Dominant period
9
 Phase
Minimum-phase… what is the lowest phase between -100°, 0°, 50°, 400° ?
None is the lowest: 400° is also 40° or -320°
10
 Phase
700
S1 200
S1*S1
-300
-800
700
N1*N1
N1 200
-300
700
-800
200 S1*S2
S2
-300
-800
700
200 S1*N1
-300
700
-800
N2 200
N1*N2
-300
-800
11
Analog
 Frequency filter
• The effect of a linear (time-invariant, stable) filter is
described by the convolution operator *
1 1
fmin fmax 0 fmax
Amplitude spectrum of a band pass filter Amplitude spectrum of a low pass filter
- Amplitude 0 before fmin and after fmax - Amplitude 0 after fmax
- Amplitude 1 between fmin and fmax - Amplitude 1 before fmax
12
Analog
 Low pass (high cut) filter
Phase
Results in Cardinal sine in time domain
Sin(2.p.fmax.t)
Amplitude p.t
Zeros at each non zero multiple of 1/(2.fmax)
Time domain
Phase
Example: cutoff fmax=60Hz

Amplitude
In practice, apply taper.

For instance, use Butterworth Time domain
(ex: 60Hz, 48dB/oct)
13
Analog
 Pulse
• Obtained by striking a tight rope
• The effect must be brief and sudden

• Active at a very one instant only
• Flay spectrum: contains all frequency components with
equal
Does weight
it seem possible to digitize it as it is ?
14
Analog
 Pulse
• Is there a chance to catch a random pulse in a digitizing
scheme?
• Solution: widen the pulse duration by Low-pass

frequency filtering at fmax; the pulse becomes a cardinal
sine.
Zeros at each multiple of 1/(2.fmax)

15
DIGITAL Domain
16
Digital
 Pulse
• The analog cardinal sine must be seen as a pulse
• All its zeroes must fall on the pins of the sampling comb: Sampling rate
(Dt) = 1/(2.fmax) or fmax=1/(2. Dt) . This is the anti-aliasing condition.
fmax is called Nyquist frequency
17
Digital
 Sampling
• Select a regular time interval Dt
• Reduce the analog frequency content, to honor the anti-
aliasing condition: fmax=1/(2. Dt).
• Restrict into a finite time window, from zero time.
• Get a series of N samples evenly spaced.
Even if the “pulse” does not fall on a sample, it can be reconstructed from
the cardinal sine samples, gathering the whole of its energy.
18
 Aliasing – (1D)
19
 Aliasing (2D)
20
1
 Ray components of a pulse
0 Hz 250
64 samples at 0.002sec rate (Frequency sampling = 7.8125 Hz)

21
 Cumulative rays of the pulse
22
 Ray 12 removed (85.937 Hz)
• The only sine component visible in the final result is
the removed one !
0 Hz 250
Beware of AGC!
With AGC
23
 Sampling
• Pulse =Cardinal sine = 1 at a single instant, 0 elsewhere
if exactly sampled
• The Analog Fourier transform becomes the Discrete
Fourier transform, digitized at rate: Df=1/(N.Dt) to
produce N/2 frequency samples from 0 to fmax=1/(2.Dt)
(from a real signal).
• Convolution, correlation become circular, with
equivalent properties
• Minimum-phase character must be interpreted.
24
 Minimum-phase character and sampling
• Analog minimum-phase= causal, reversible with causal

inverse.
• What is “causal” in a finite window?
• Digitized signals are frequency band-limited in the
Nyquist range.
• How to reverse a frequency band-limited signal?
25
 Minimum-phase character and sampling
• The analog impulse is minimum-phase.
• Sampling transforms the analog impulse into a cardinal sine. This is the
time series of a non causal signal !
• However, the digitized pulse at time 0 reduces to one sample and is
considered causal in the digitized domain. It is also considered
minimum-phase.
• Conclusion: minimum-phase character is not equivalent in analog and

discrete domains. It has to be redefined after sampling. This is done from
the Z-transform.
26
Digital
 Minimum-phase after sampling
• Z-transform
 The samples of the signal are used as coefficients of a polynomial (first one at
degree 0):
 Example: signal with 2 terms:
1+0.4.Z 0.4+Z
• Convolution=polynomial product
(1+0.4.Z)*(0.4+Z)=0.4+1.16.Z+0.4.Z2
• Minimum-phase = product of all minimum-phase terms.

• Minimum-phase with 2 terms: amplitude of first term dominant .
27
 Example: (1+0.3.Z)29
Yes, this is a digital minimum-phase signal !
28
Analog
 Convolution s1*s2 of s1 with s2:
Yes No
Can a signal be zero-phase and minimum-phase at once (analog)?
Can a signal be zero-phase and minimum-phase at once (digital)?
Is the digital pulse the image of a minimum-phase analog signal?
Can Zero-phase * Non Zero-phase = Zero-phase
Can Minimum-phase* Non Minimum-phase = Minimum-phase
Is Minimum-phase* Zero-phase = Minimum-phase
The
Generally,
Thisdigitized
The is the no.
analog image
pulseand
pulse ofand
anonly
analog
onlyit it(except
(except
cardinalzero)
sine
zero)
29
 Example: phase=height
The smallest by height in a

company is moved to another
(his height is not changed!)
30
Digital
 Recorder settings
• Sampling is done by the recorder (including the
electronic boxes) or by the sensors.
• The time sampling rate must be set.
• Anti-aliasing (analog) filter: minimum-phase or linear-
phase ?
• Input gain: the highest possible while avoiding
OVERSCALING.
31
TRACE RECORDING
32
 Trace from source “s” to receiver “r”:
T(s,r)=[S(s)*G(s,r)+ U(s)+A(s,r)]*Sens*Rec+NRec
 “Sens” is the sensor response including its COUPLING.
 “Rec” is the recorder response.
 “NRec” is the recorder noise (=0).
 S(s) is the desired source term.
 U(s) is the unwanted source effect, the source generated noise.
 A(s,r) is the ambient noise, usually low.
 G(s,r) is the ground response
 After datuming, a trace sample is element of a 5D space: Time, Source(X,Y), Receiver(X,Y).
33

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1 Course 3 Digitizing

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3D seismic acquisition in

Transition zones (TZ) and OBC

 ANALOG: continuous infinite space and time

 DIGITAL: discrete and finite space and time

• The effect of a linear (time invariant, stable) filter is

 The amplitudes of the spectra multiply together

fmin fmax 0 fmax

Example: cutoff fmax=60Hz

In practice, apply taper.

• The effect must be brief and sudden

• Solution: widen the pulse duration by Low-pass

Zeros at each multiple of 1/(2.fmax)

fmax is called Nyquist frequency

64 samples at 0.002sec rate (Frequency sampling = 7.8125 Hz)

• Analog minimum-phase= causal, reversible with causal

• Conclusion: minimum-phase character is not equivalent in analog and

• Minimum-phase = product of all minimum-phase terms.

Yes, this is a digital minimum-phase signal !

The smallest by height in a

 “Rec” is the recorder response.

 “NRec” is the recorder noise (=0).

 S(s) is the desired source term.

 U(s) is the unwanted source effect, the source generated noise.

 A(s,r) is the ambient noise, usually low.

 G(s,r) is the ground response

 After datuming, a trace sample is element of a 5D space: Time, Source(X,Y), Receiver(X,Y).

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