Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Taoism
Taoism at a Glance
The One
• The One is the essence of Tao, the essential energy of life, the possession of which
enables things and beings to be truly themselves and in accord with the Tao.
• Taoist texts sometimes refer to the Tao as the mother and the One as the son.
Wu and Yu
• Wu and Yu are non-being and being, or not-having and having. Wu also implies
inexhaustibility or limitlessness. Some writers suggest that Wu can be directly
experienced by human beings.
Te
• Te is usually translated as virtue, but this translation uses some Confucian ideas
and can be confusing.
• Another way of looking at te is an awareness of the Tao together with the
capabilities that enable a person to follow the Tao.
Concepts within Taoism (continued)
Tzu Jan
• Tzu Jan is usually translated naturalness or spontaneity, but this is rather misleading.
• One writer suggests using the phrase 'that which is naturally so', meaning the condition that something will be in if it is permitted to
exist and develop naturally and without interference or conflict.
• The Taoist ideal is to fulfil that which is naturally so, and the way to do this is Wu Wei.
Wu Wei
• The method of following the Tao is called Wu Wei. This can be translated as uncontrived action or natural non-intervention.
• Wu Wei is sometimes translated as non-action, but this wrongly implies that nothing at all gets done.
• Wu Wei means living by or going along with the true nature of the world - or at least without obstructing the Tao - letting things
take their natural course.
• So Taoists live lives of balance and harmony. They find their way through life in the same way that a river flowing through the
countryside finds its natural course.
• This doesn't stop a person living a proactive life but their activities should fit into the natural pattern of the universe, and therefore
need to be completely detached and disinterested and not ego-driven.
• This implies that Taoists take an attitude akin to Voltaire's (satirically intended) doctrine that "All is for the
best in this best of all possible worlds."
• And certainly pure Taoism requires individuals to live on the basis that the world is working properly, and
that they therefore should not interfere with it.
Yin and Yang
• Yin Yang is the principle of natural and complementary forces, patterns and things
that depend on one another and do not make sense on their own.
• These may be masculine and feminine, but they could be darkness and light (which
is closer to the original meaning of the dark and light sides of a hill), wet and dry or
action and inaction.
• These are opposites that fit together seamlessly and work in perfect harmony. You
can see this by looking at the yin yang symbol.
• The yin yang concept is not the same as Western dualism, because the two
opposites are not at war, but in harmony.
• This can be seen very clearly in the symbol: the dark area contains a spot of light,
and vice versa, and the two opposites are intertwined and bound together within the
unifying circle.
• Yin and yang are not static, the balance ebbs and flows between them - this is
implied in the flowing curve where they meet.
The Taoist Body
• Taoists view the body as a miniature of the
universe, filled with the Tao. The parts of the
body have their counterparts in physical
features of the universe.
Ch’i (Qi)
• Qi is the basic material of all that exists. It animates life and furnishes functional power of
events. Qi is the root of the human body; its quality and movement determine human
health. Qi can be discussed in terms of quantity, since having more means stronger
metabolic function. This, however, does not mean that health is a byproduct of storing
large quantities of qi. Rather, there is a normal or healthy amount of qi in every person,
and health manifests in its balance and harmony, its moderation and smoothness of flow.
This flow is envisioned in the texts as a complex system of waterways with the "Ocean of
Qi" in the abdomen; rivers of qi flowing through the upper torso, arms, and legs; springs
of qi reaching to the wrists and ankles; and wells of qi found in the fingers and toes. Even
a small spot in this complex system can thus influence the whole, so that overall balance
and smoothness are the general goal. Human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its
dispersal. After receiving a core potential of primordial qi at birth, people throughout life
need to sustain it. They do so by drawing postnatal qi into the body from air and food, as
well as from other people through sexual, emotional, and social interaction. But they also
lose qi through breathing bad air, overburdening their bodies with food and drink, and
getting involved in negative emotions and excessive sexual or social interactions.
Immortality
• Immortality does not mean living for ever in
the present physical body.
• The idea is that as the Taoist draws closer
and closer to nature throughout their life,
death is just the final step in achieving
complete unity with the universe.
Knowledge and Relativity
• Human knowledge is always partial and affected by
the standpoint of the person claiming that knowledge.
There can never be a single true knowledge, merely
the aggregate of uncountable different viewpoints.
• Because the universe is always changing, so
knowledge is always changing.
• The closest a human being can get to this is knowledge
that is consistent with the Tao. But this is a trap
because the Tao that can be known is not the Tao. True
knowledge cannot be known - but perhaps it can be
understood or lived.
Religious and Philosophical Taoism
• The word Taoism is used to refer to both a
philosophy and a set of spiritual doctrines as well
as an extensive ritual hierarchy and monastic
institution. Although textbooks often distinguish
between 'religious' and 'philosophical' Taoism,
this is an artificial distinction, and is no more
than the difference found in all religions between
the practices of the faith, and the theological and
philosophical ideas behind them.
Religious Taoism
• Taoism is often taught in the West as an atheist or agnostic philosophy, but in China and Taiwan
particularly, Taoism still functions like any conventional religion, and not like an abstract
philosophy of life.
• There are Taoist temples, monasteries and priests, rituals and ceremonies, and a host of gods
and goddesses for believers to worship. These are as vital to the survival of Taoism as
individual understanding and practice.
• Taoism's rich palette of liturgy and ritual makes the Tao more real to human beings and
provides a way in which humanity can align itself more closely to the Tao to produce better
lives for all.
• The religious elements of Taoism draw much of their content from other Chinese religions
(including many local cults), and so enfold a very wide range of culture and belief within the
wings of the Tao.
• The many traditions within the Taoist framework gives priests the tools to carry out the
conventional tasks of any religion: worship, healing, exorcism, intercession, purification,
divination and so on.
• Most Taoist temple practices are designed to regulate the relationship between humanity and
the world of gods and spirits, and to organize that relationship, and the relationships in the
spirit world, in harmony with the Tao.
Relig io us Ta o ism
Two traditions
• Religious Taoism follows two main traditions. Each has a clear hierarchical
and well-organized structure with special headquarters, rules, guidelines,
ordination rites and registration procedures.
• The celestial masters (Tianshi or Zhengyi) - Temple Daoism are centered in
Taiwan. The monastic branch of the Complete Perfection School (Quanzhen)
has its headquarters in Beijing.
• The Complete Perfection School ordains people and provides monastic
communities as a focus for Taoist practice and rituals.
Taoist Priests
• Taoist priests undergo long and intense
training to acquire the necessary skills. They
must study music, liturgy and ritual, as well
as meditation and other physical practices;
and they must learn Taoist theology and the
spiritual hierarchy of the Taoist deities.
During this training they are required to live
highly disciplined lives.
Shamanism
• Taoist experts believe that they can journey in spirit to
higher realms of being - in much the same way that
Shamans can journey out of the body.
• The Taoist traveler makes such journeys through ritual,
meditation, and visualization which separate them
from this world and harmonize them with the energy
flows of the universe. The journeys gradually move
them closer and closer to the Tao itself.
Taoism: Ethics
Taoist Ethics - Theory and Practice
Theory
• Taoist ethics are concerned less with doing good acts than becoming a good person who lives in harmony
with all things and people.
• Taoist ethics are inseparable from Taoist spirituality - both contain the same ideas.
• If a Taoist wants to live well they should take all their decisions in the context of the Tao, trying to see what
will fit best with the natural order of things.
• Taoists thus always do what is required by events and their context, but they only do what is required, no
more.
• In theory at least, Taoists tend not to initiate action - but wait for events to make action necessary - and avoid
letting their own desires and compulsions push them into doing things.
Practice
• In practice Taoism recommends the same sorts of moral behavior to its followers as other religions.
• It disapproves of killing, stealing, lying and promiscuity, and promotes altruistic, helpful and kindly behavior.
• Taoists believe such good behavior is an essential part not only of self-improvement but of improving the
world as a whole.
Personal and Community Ethics
• The Taoist ideal is for a person to take action by changing
themselves, and thus becoming an example of the good life to
others.
• They should develop themselves so that they live their life in
complete harmony with the universe. So the philosophy is
not do good things; but become a good person.
• Changing oneself in that way will make the world a better
place, because as a person behaves well towards other people
and the world, the community will respond by becoming
better itself.
Women
• Taoism is a gender-neutral religion. This is implied by the concept of Yin Yang
which teaches that masculine and feminine are complementary, inseparable and
equal.
• The Tao Te Ching uses female images such as the mother of the universe and
the mother of all things when describing the Tao.
• Taoism has always accepted that women have an equal part to play in spiritual
life. Women took priestly roles from the earliest days of organized Taoist
religion and Taoist legend has many tales of female deities.
• Taoism emphasizes characteristics that are usually thought of as feminine such
as softness and yielding, modesty and non-aggression. It teaches that the weak
will overcome the strong.
Politics
• Taoist texts suggest that the ideal way for a leader to
run their country is by example and with minimal
intervention.
• So a good leader is one that the people respect and
whose instructions are willingly followed. The good
leader achieves this by living virtuously in private, and
living publicly so as to influence his people for the
good.
Human Nature
• Taoism has no founder and no founding date. It grew out of various religious and philosophical
traditions in ancient China, including shamanism and nature religion.
• Zhang Daoling became the first Celestial Master and founder of the first organized Taoist school of
thought. This tradition continues to the present day, with the current Celestial Master living in
Taiwan.
• Early religious Taoism was rooted in the ideas of the Taoist thinkers, to which were added local
religious rituals and beliefs, both to provide examples of Taoist philosophy, and integrate Taoism
into the existing world views of all levels of the Chinese people.
• Taoism was first recognized as a religious system during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. The
publication of the and other works provided a focus for Taoist thinking. Tao Te Ching
• Taoism became a semi-official Chinese religion during the Tang dynasty and continued during the
Song dynasty. As Confucianism gained popularity Taoism gradually fell from favor, and changed
from an official religion to a popular religious tradition.
• At this time Taoism began to flourish in the greater freedom on offer in Taiwan.
• After the end of the Cultural Revolution the Chinese government began to allow a small measure of
religious freedom. Taoism began to revive in China, and Taoist temples and practitioners can now
be found throughout the country.
Leading figures in Taoism
Lao Tzu (Laozi)
• Lao Tzu (Laozi) is traditionally described as the founder of Taoism, but
modern writers think he is a legendary figure, and that the book attributed
to him - the Tao Te Ching - is actually a collection of writings by many
different wise people. In that way it's like the Biblical Book of Proverbs.
Chuang Tzu
• The other main figure of Taoism is Chuang Tzu (Zhuangzi), 3rd century
BCE. Chuang Tzu has a book attributed to him, called the Chuang-
Tzu after the practice of referring to Chinese texts by the names of their
authors.
Practices
Internal and External Alchemy
• Taoism has no founder and no founding date. It grew out of various religious and
philosophical traditions in ancient China, including shamanism and nature religion.
• Zhang Daoling became the first Celestial Master and founder of the first organized
Taoist school of thought. This tradition continues to the present day, with the current
Celestial Master living in Taiwan.
• Early religious Taoism was rooted in the ideas of the Taoist thinkers, to which were
added local religious rituals and beliefs, both to provide examples of Taoist philosophy,
and integrate Taoism into the existing world views of all levels of the Chinese people.
• Taoism was first recognized as a religious system during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.
The publication of the Tao Te Ching and other works provided a focus for Taoist
thinking.
• Taoism became a semi-official Chinese religion during the Tang dynasty and continued
during the Song dynasty. As Confucianism gained popularity Taoism gradually fell
from favor, and changed from an official religion to a popular religious tradition.
The Origins of Taoism(continued)
• Modern Taoism falls into main categories: 'Southern' Taoism, popular in Taiwan and South China
and 'Northern' Taoism, a tradition largely unknown to Westerners but widely practiced among
modern Taoists in mainland China.
Southern Taoism
• Southern Taoism is an offshoot of Cheng-i Taoism, the only liturgical tradition surviving today. The
modern Cheng-i tradition dates back to the 11th century. Its priests still perform liturgies like
the chiao, believed to harmonize the local community with the cosmos. They also perform healing
rituals and exorcisms in public. But these activities are frowned upon by 'Northern' Taoists.
Northern Taoism
• The outside world knew little about the existence of Northern Taoism until the 1980s because few
foreigners were allowed to enter mainland China under conditions that allowed them to experience
the country's religious culture. For a time there was also a question mark over whether Taoism had
survived the crackdown on all religions in China from 1966 to 1976.
• Northern Taoism grew out of the Ch'üan-chen tradition. It was founded in the 12th century by Wang
Chu'ung-yang. It emphasizes moral and spiritual discipline and also continues self-preservation
practices that date back to the classical Nei-yeh. Its headquarters are at White Cloud Abbey in
Beijing.
Key Books in Taoism
Tao Te Ching
• The key book of Taoism was compiled around the 3rd century BCE. It's called the Tao Te Ching (Dao De
Jing or Daode Jing) - The Way and Its Power, and is also known as the Lao-tzu.
• This short book of around 5,000 Chinese characters is divided into 81 brief chapters filled with short,
enigmatic paragraphs of advice on life, and poetic descriptions of the nature of the universe.
• Taoists regard the Tao Te Ching as the essential guide to living a full spiritual and ethical life.
• No one person wrote the Tao Te Ching. Although elementary textbooks usually say it was written by Lao
Tzu (Laozi) this is untrue. The book is probably a collection of the proverbs and sayings of many
anonymous people over a long period of time.
• The earliest Western version of the Tao Te Ching was a Latin translation made by the Jesuits in the late 18th
century.
Chuang-tzu
• Another important book is the Chuang-tzu. Although this was published after the Tao Te Ching, its
compilation began earlier. Like the Tao Te Ching, although it is attributed to a man named Chuang Tzu
(Zhuangzi), it is a collection of the wisdom of many different people.
• The thinking that led to the Tao Te Ching was probably influenced by an older book called the Nei yeh. This
includes early writings on some key Taoist ideas, particularly ch'i, although some of the ideas differ from
their later Taoist form.