Sec 2.

3
Frequency Related
Distributions and Graphs

The number of
Table data points in each
interval
Shows
intervals Shows patterns

∑ 𝑓 𝑖=𝑛
 Construction of a Step 1: Step 2:
Determine
frequency distribution Find the
the number
range
of classes
Step 7:
Record the
frequencies Step 3:
Determine
Step 4: class width
Step 5:
Step 6: Calculate Choose the
Determine lower values lower value
the upper for remaining for the first
values classes class
 Frequency Distribution Example

Example 1:
The table gives the weights (kg) of
50 parts made in a factory.

Step 1: Range = max – min

= 88 – 7 = 81
Step 2: Determine the number of classes k

Sturge’s Rule: k = rounded up value of {1 + 1.44 ln(n) }

= 1 + 1.44 ln(50)
= 6.63….
=7 Always round up.

Step 3: Determine the class width, .

Always
81 round
𝑐= =11.57 ≈ 12 up.
7
Step 4:
7 is the smallest value so let the
lower value of 1st class be 6

6 + 12 = 18

Step 5: + 12
Find the lower class limits. + 12
+ 12
Add c = 12 to the lower limit
to get the lower limit of the + 12
next class. + 12
Step 6: Determine the upper class limits:

One unit less than the lower

limit of the following class.

Step 7: Determine the frequencies for each

class (tally).
 Frequency Distribution

Use this formula to

tally the data:

¿ 𝐹𝑅𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐸𝑁𝐶𝑌 ( 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 _ 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 ;𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑠 _ 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 )

The set of values that The upper class limits.

you want to tally.
 Step 1:
Enter data

Step 3:
Rows 11 Step 2: Insert a
to 48 are Find classes column for
hidden (Sturge’s rule) upper limits
 Step 4:
Select ALL the cells in which you want
the frequencies to appear.
E2:E8

Step 5:
Type in
= FREQUENCY( A2:A51 ; D2:D8 )

data_array
bins_array

Step 6:
Do not press ENTER
Press: CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER
 Selecting Classes

Some classes Sturge’s rule

form naturally
Example: Convenient
Class marks when no
0–9 natural
10 – 19 classes are
20 – 29 present.
…
90 - 100
 Classes should not be
Rules too large or too small

Might not see

a pattern
Each data point
must be in (only)
one class
Where will
18 go?
The classes
must not lead And 29.3?
to ambiguity
 Class limits vs Boundaries

Data values Data values

can equal cannot
both lower equal both
and upper upper and
limit lower
limits.

There is a There is no
“gap” between “gap” between
classes. classes.
 Alternative
display

𝑋=𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
 A number of things can be calculated These things can
from the frequency distribution. help visually
display the data.

Class Midpoints:
The middle value of a class interval.

( 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ) + ( 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 )

2
( 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ) + ( 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 )
2
Cumulative Frequencies:
The number of values in the sample that are less than the upper
class boundary of that class.

Relative Frequency:
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
The frequency of a class
relative to the sample size. 𝑛

Relative Frequency Percentage:

The percentage of frequencies 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ×100%
that fall into a class.
 Frequency Distribution Example

Example 2

Consider this data that shows the

low temperatures (in degrees
Fahrenheit to the nearest degree) for
50 days.

Step 1: range = max – min

= 64 – 39 = 25
Step 2: Determine the number of classes k
Sturge’s Rule: k = rounded up value of {1 + 1.44 ln(n) }

= 1 + 1.44 ln(50)
= 6.63….
=7 Always round up.

Step 3: Determine the class width, .

Always
25
𝑐= =3.57 ≈ 4 round
7 up.
Step 4: 39 is the smallest value so let the lower value of 1st class be 38

38 + 4 = 42

Step 5: Determine the lower class limits.

Add c = 4 to each lower limit

of the remaining classes
Step 6: Determine the upper class limits

One unit less than lower

limit of following class.

Step 7:
Determine the frequencies for each class
using Excel.
Midpoints In cell D3 type:

Press Enter

In cell D4 type:

Press Enter

Place the curser over the

corner of cell D4 till it
changes to “ ”

Fill the remaining cells by

holding down and dragging
Relative Frequency 𝑓𝑖
¿ = 𝐶 3 / 50
𝑛
¿ 𝐸 3 ∗ 100

¿ 𝐶 4 / 50

Place the curser over the

corner of cell E4 till it
changes to “ ”

Fill the remaining cells by

holding down and dragging
Histogram Bar Chart
: Class boundaries

: Frequency

Must
remove the
gaps from
between the
bars
 Histogram Adjusting the Bar Chart

Double click on any one of the bars to bring up ‘Format Data Series’

Change the
Gap Width to
0%

Under Border,
select Solid line.

Change colour Notice:

to black. 1) No gaps
2) Has borders around the bars.
Frequency polygon Line Chart

: Class midpoints
: Frequency

Graph is “floating”. Must anchor/peg it.

 Add a “class” to There are no
the beginning points in these
+4 and end. classes so

+4

Now the graph does not “float”.

 Ogive Line Chart : Class boundaries
: Cumulative frequency
Draw using a
scatter plot.

Add a “class” to
the beginning.

There are no points

smaller than 37,5 so
cumulative frequency = 0
 STEP 5: STEP 6:
STEPS 1, 2 & 3:
Choose Scatter with Choose this option.
Do as normal
smooth lines.

STEP 4:
From ‘All
Charts’ select
‘XY (Scatter)’
 Ogive
60

50

Cumulative frequency
40

30

20

10
Note:
The graph 0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
does not
“float”. Temperature
 These graphs show:
• Clustering patterns of the data
• How the data is distributed

Bell- shape
Data sets often show Rectangular / uniform
common patterns…
Bimodal

Positively skewed

Negatively skewed
 Most values occur
Bell-shaped
at the middle
data
section.

Examples:
• Heights of men
• Marks for a fairly set Fewer and fewer values in
test either direction.
 Also called “uniformly shaped”
Rectangular

All the values in the

0.12 data set occur
0.1 approximately the same
0.08
number of times.
frequency

0.06

0.04

0.02
Example
Frequencies of winning
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 numbers in a large number of
x
Lotto draws.
 2 distinct subgroups with
Bimodal shape different values give 2
distinct peaks.

60

50
Example
40 Measuring the body lengths of ants
when there are adults and juveniles
frequency

30

together in the same data set.

20

10
Two peaks in the curve reflect the fact
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
that juvenile ants have shorter body
Body length (m m ) lengths than adult ants
 Positively Skewed Most values
occur in the lower
end of the scale.

Also known as Fewer and

skewed to the right fewer towards
the upper end
of the scale

Example
• The marks for an hard test
• Time taken to get served
your food at McDonalds
 Most values occur in the
Negatively
upper end of the scale.
Skewed

Also known as
skewed to the left

Example
• The marks for an easy test
• Time taken to get served Fewer and fewer to the
your food at Mug ‘n Bean lower end of the scale.