Lecture 2: Overview of

Operating System

Operating System

1
Outline
 What is Operating System
 OS as User/Computer Interface
 Services provided by OS
 OS as Resource Manager
 Evolution of OS
 Major Achievements of OS

2
What is Operating System?
 An operating system is a program that controls the
execution of application programs and acts as an
interface between applications and the computer
hardware.
 Three objectives of operating systems:
 Convenience
 Makes a computer more convenient to use
 Efficiency
 Allows the computer system resources to be used in an
efficient manner
 Ability to evolve
 Permit the effective development, testing, and introduction of
new system functions without interfering with service

3
OS as User/Computer Interface

End
User

Programmer

Application
Programs

Operating-
Utilities System
Designer

Operating-System

Computer Hardware

4
Services provided by the
operating systems
 Program Development
 OS provides a variety of facilities and services, such as
editors and debuggers, to assist the programmer in creating
programs. Typically, these services are in the form of utility
programs that, while not strictly part of the core of the OS,
are supplied with the OS and are referred to as application
program development tools.
 Program Execution
 A number of tasks need to be performed before we can
execute a program. Instructions and data must be loaded
into main memory. I/O devices and files must be initialized,
and other resources must be prepared. The OS handles
these duties for the user.

5
Services provided by the
operating systems (cont.)
 Access to I/O Devices
 Each I/O devices requires its own peculiar set of instructions
or control signals for operating. The OS provides a uniform
interface that hides these details so that the programmer
can access such devices using simple reads and writes.
 Controlled Access to File
 The OS must provide protection mechanisms to control
access to the files for different users. Certain files can read
only, or write only, or execute only. The OS must enforce
the access mechanism.
 System Access
 In the case of a shared or public system, the OS control
access to the system as a whole and to specific system
resources.

6
Services provided by the
operating systems (cont.)
 Error Detection and Response
 A variety of errors can occur while a computer
system is running
 Internal and External hardware errors such as memory
error, device failure, or malfunctions.
 Software error such as arithmetic overflow or underflow,
attempt to access forbidden memory locations
 Operating system cannot grant request of application
 Accounting
 Collect usage statistic
 Monitor performance
 Used to anticipate future enhancement
 prepare billing information
7
OS as Resource Manager
Computer System
I/O devices
Memory
OS I/O controller printers
Software
I/O controller Keyboards
Programs .
etc.
.
and .

data
I/O controller

processor … processor Auxiliary

storage
devices,
disks, tapes
8
OS as Resource Manager (cont.)
 The OS is responsible for controlling and
managing the various resources of a
computer system.
 The OS functions in the same way as an ordinary
computer software, i.e., it is a program or suite of
programs executed by the processor
 The OS frequently relinquishes control of the
processor and must depend on the processor to
allow it to regain control
 The OS itself doesn’t do any “useful” work.

9
Ease of Evolution of an OS
 A major OS will evolve over time for a
number of reasons:
 Hardware upgrades plus new types of
hardware
 New services demanded by users
 Fixer – fix holes in OS

10
Evolution of OS (1)
 1940-1950
 No operating system
 Run as an open shop
 User signs up for certain time to use it

11
 Evolution of OS (2)
- Simple Batch Systems
Interrupt Processing  mid 1950s - mid 1960s
 User no longer has direct
Device Drivers
Monitor
access to the machine
Job Sequencing  Submit the job to an
operator who batches the
Control Language Interpreter jobs together sequentially
and places the entire batch
on the input device
User  Often jobs of a similar
Program nature can be bundled
Area together to further increase
economy
12
Evolution of OS (2)
- Simple Batch Systems (cont.)
 Job Control Language (JCL)
 Special type of programming language
 Provide instruction to the monitor

$JOB user_spec ; identify the user for accounting purposes

$FORTRAN ; load the FORTRAN compiler
source program cards
$LOAD ; load the compiled program
$RUN ; run the program
data cards
$EOJ ; end of job

$JOB user_spec ; identify a new user

$LOAD application
$RUN data
$EOJ
13
 Evolution of OS (2)
- Simple Batch Systems (cont.)
 Need additional hardware features to support the
batch OS:
 Memory Protection – protect the OS from being wiped out
 Timer – prevent the job run infinitely
 Privileged Instruction
 certain instruction can only be executed by OS, and not by
user.
 I/O could only be performed in monitor (supervisor) mode,
 CPU runs in supervisor mode or user mode
 Interrupts
 early models did not have this capability.
 Later models have.
 Make more efficient use of resources

Note: Some memory is given to OS and some processor time is given to OS. But
we are still better off because machine is a lot faster than human operation.
14
Evolution of OS (3)
- Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
 1960s - present
Monitor
 Several users are in
(more like a operating system) memory at the same
time
 Match I/O intensive job
User program 1 with CPU intensive job
 Important to have
User program 2
Interrupt-Driven I/O or
User program 3 DMA to support
multiprogrammed batch
User program 4 system.

15
Uniprogramming
 Processor must wait for I/O instruction
to complete before preceding

16
Multiprogramming
 When one job needs to wait for I/O, the
processor can switch to the other job

17
Multiprogramming

18
Evolution of OS (4)
- Time-Sharing Systems
 1970s - present
 To support interactive computing
 In a time-sharing system, multiple users simultaneously
access the system through terminals, with the OS
interleaving the execution of each user program in a short
burst or quantum of computation.
 Context Switching
 A job (now often called process) can get “switched in” or
“switched out”.
 OS should give the illusion for the process as if it exists in the
CPU continuously

19
Batch Multiprogramming
versus Time Sharing
Batch Multiprogramming Time Sharing

Minimize response
Principal objective Maximize processor use
time

Job control language

Source of directives Commands entered at
commands provided with
to operating system the terminal
the job

20
Evolution of OS (5)
 Real-time computer
 Execute programs that are guaranteed to have an upper bound on
tasks that they carry out.
 e.g. guided missile systems, medical monitoring equipment
 Multiprocessor – have more than one CPU
 Shared memory multiprocessors
 Access the same memory - memory access must be synchronized
 Distributed memory multiprocessors
 Each CPU has its own associated memory – communication between
processors is often slow and complicated
 Networked/Distributed Systems – consist of multiple computers
 Networked systems: users are aware of the different computers
that make up the system
 Distributed systems: multiple computers are transparent to the
user.

21
Major Achievements of OS
 OS are the most complex software ever
developed
 In the last several decades, we have made
several theoretical advances in the
development of OS:
 Processes
 Memory management
 Information protection and security
 Scheduling and resources management
 Systems structures
22
Processes - Definition
 The concept of process is fundamental to the
structure of OS. Many definitions have been
given:
 A program in execution
 An instance of a program running on a computer
 The entity that can be assigned to and executed
by a processor
 A unit of activity characterized by a single
sequential thread of execution, a current state,
and an associated set of system resources.

23
Processes
 In a multiprogrammed systems, many jobs are in progress at
the same time. It became impossible to analyze their
interactions. Therefore, there are many source of errors:
 Improper Synchronization
 It is often the case that a routine must be suspended awaiting an event
that occurs elsewhere
 Failed Mutual Exclusion
 Certain shared resources can only be used by one user at a time
 Nondeterminate Program Execution
 The results of a particular program should depend only on the input
and not on the activities of other programs in a shared system
 Deadlocks
 It is possible for two or more programs to be hung up waiting for each
other
 We need to tackle these problems in a systematic way. The
concept of the process provides the foundation.

24
Processes - Components
 We can think of a process as consisting of
three components:
 An executable program
 The associated data needed by the program
 The execution context of the program
 All information the operating system needs to manage
the process

25
 Processes
CPU registers
process PSW
OS
list
PC

Base b
Limit h
process Context
A Data PC
Instructions
other PC
registers …
Context
process PC
Data
B
Instructions

26
Memory management
 Process isolation
 The OS must prevent independent processes from
interfering with the data and memory of each other
 Automatic allocation and management
 Programs should be dynamically allocated across the
memory hierarchy as required.
 Support for modular programming
 Protection and access control
 Sometimes it is desirable to share data. Sometimes it is not.
The OS must enforce them
 Long-term storage

27
Virtual Memory
 Allows programmers to address
memory from a logical point of view
 While one process is written out to
secondary store and the successor
process read in there in no hiatus

28
File System
 Implements long-term store
 Information stored in named objects
called files

29
Paging
 Allows process to be comprised of a
number of fixed-size blocks, called pages
 Virtual address is a page number and an
offset within the page
 Each page may be located any where in
main memory
 Real address or physical address in main
memory

30
31
 Virtual Memory Addressing

Memory
Processor Management Main
Virtual Unit Real Memory
Address Address

Disk
Address

Secondary
Memory

32
Information Protection and
Security
 Access control
 Regulate user access to the system
 Information flow control
 Regulate flow of data within the system
and its delivery to users
 Certification
 Providing that access and flow control
perform according to specifications

33
Scheduling and Resources
Management
 A key task of an OS is to manage the various
resources available to it and to schedule their
use by the various active processes.
 Any scheduling policy must consider three
factors:
 Fairness
 Give equal and fair access to all processes
 Differential Responsiveness – priorities
 Discriminate between different classes of jobs
 Efficiency
 maximize throughput, minimize response time, and
accommodate as many uses as possible etc.
34
System Structure
 Early OS are monolithic
 Later OS are modular
 View the system as a series of levels
 Each level performs a related subset of
functions
 Each level relies on the next lower level to
perform more primitive functions
 This decomposes a problem into a number
of more manageable subproblems
35
System Structure (cont.)
 Microkernel architecture
 assigns only a few essential functions to
the kernel
 address space
 interprocess communication (IPC)
 basic scheduling

36
System Structure (cont.)
 Modules
 Most modern operating systems implement
kernel modules
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
 Overall, similar to layers but with more
flexible

37
Solaris Modular Approach

38
 Operating System Design
Hierarchy
Level Name Objects Example operations

13 Shell User programming Statements in shell

environment language
12 User processes User processes Quit, kill, suspend,
resume
11 Directories Directories Create, destroy, attach,
detach, search, list
10 Devices External devices, such Open, close, read, write
as printer, displays
and keyboards
9 File system Files Create, destroy, open,
close, read, write
8 Communications Pipes Create, destroy, open,
close, read, write 39
 Operating System Design
Hierarvichy (cont.)

Level Name Objects Example operations

7 Virtual Memory Segments, pages Read, write, fetch

6 Local secondary Blocks of data, Read, write, allocate,

store device channels free
5 Primitive Primitive process, Suspend, resume, wait,
processes semaphores, ready signal
list

40
 Operating System Design
Hierarvichy (cont.)

Level Name Objects Example operations

4 Interrupts Interrupt-handler Invoke, enable, disable

interrupt
3 Procedures Procedures, call stack, Mark stack, call, return
display
2 Instruction Set Evaluation stack, Load, store, add,
microprogram interpreter, subtract branch
scalar and array data
1 Electronic Registers, gates, buses, Clear, transfer,
circuits etc. activate, complement

41
End

Thank you!

42